THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY  . 


+75 


/ 


A 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


FOB 


SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


ALBERT  IIAEKNESS,  Pir.  D., 


PROFESSOR  IN  BROWN  UNITERSITY. 


REVISED  EDITION, 


EMBRACING 


IMPORTANT  RESULTS  OP  RECENT  PHILOLOGICAL  RESEARCH. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

549  AND  551  BPwOADWAY. 
LONDON:  16  LITTLE  BRITAIN. 
1879. 


ox 


h 

PREFACE. 


The  work  now  offered  to  tlie  public  bad  its  origin  in  a desire 
to  promote  the  cause  of  Classical  study.  It  has  long  been  the 
opinion  of  the  author,  in  common  with  numerous  classical  teachers, 
\ . that  the  subject  of  Latin  Grammar,  often  regarded  as  dry  and  dif- 
ficult, may  be  presented  to  the  learner  in  a form  at  once  simple, 
attractive,  and  philosophical.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  manual  to  aid 
the  instructor  in  the  attainment  of  this  most  desirable  end. 

That  the  present  is  a favorable  time  for  the  production  of  a 
Latin  Grammar  scarcely  admits  of  a doubt.  Never  before  were 
there  such  facilities  for  the  work.  The  last  quarter  of  a century 
has  formed  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  language  and  in  the  methods 
of  instruction.  During  this  period  some  of  the  most  gifted  minds 
of  Germany  have  been  gathering  the  choicest  treasures  in  the  field 
of  philology,  while  others  have  been  equally  successful  in  devising 
improved  methods  of  instruction.  In  our  own  country  too,  the 
mure  encerprising  teachers  have  caught  the  spirit  of  improvement, 
and  are  calling  loudly  for  a better  method  than  has  hitherto  pre- 
vailed in  classical  study. 

The  present  work  has  been  prepared  in  view  of  these  facts. 
To  explain  its  general  plan,  the  author  begs  leave  to  specify  the 
following  points. 

1.  This  volume  is  designed  to  present  a systematic  arrangement 
of  the  great  facts  and  laws  of  the  Latin  language ; to  exhibit  not 
only  grammatical  forms  and  constructions,  but  also  those  mtal 
principles  which  underlie,  control,  and  explain  them. 

2,  Designed  at  once  as  a text-book  for  the  class-room,  and  a 
book  of  reference  in  study,  it  aims  to  introduce  the  beginner  easi- 
ly and  pleasantly  to  the  first  principles  of  the  language,  and  yet  to 
make  adequate  provision  for  the  wants  of  the  more  advanced 
student.  Accordingly  it  presents  in  large  type  a general  survey 
of  the  whole  subject  in  a brief  and  concise  statement  of  facts  and 


IV 


PKEFACEa 


laws,  while  parallel  with  this,  in  smaller  type,  it  furnishes  a fuller 
discussion  of  irregularities  and  exceptions  for  later  study  and  for 
reference. 

8.  By  brevity  and  conciseness  in  the  choice  of  phraseology  and 
compactness  in  the  arrangement  of  forms  and  topics,  the  author 
has  endeavored  to  compress  within  the  limits  of  a convenient 
manual  an  amount  of  carefully  selected  grammatical  facts,  which 
would  otherwise  fill  a much  larger  volume. 

4.  He  has,  moreover,  endeavored  to  present  the  whole  subject 
in  the  light  of  modern  scholarship.  "Without  encumbering  his 
pages  with  any  unnecessary  discussions,  he  has  aimed  to  enrich 
them  with  the  practical  remits  of  the  recent  labors  in  the  field  of 
philology. 

5.  In  the  regular  paradigms,  both  of  declension  and  of  conjuga- 
tion, the  stems  and  endings  have  been  distinguished  by  a difference 
of  type,  thus  keeping  constantly  before  the  pupil  the  significance  of 
the  two  essential  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
inflected  forms. 

6.  Syntax  has  received  in  every  part  special  attention.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  exhibit,  as  clearly  as  possible,  that  beauti- 
ful system  of  laws  which  the  genius  of  the  language — that  highest 
of  all  grammatical  authority — has  created  for  itself.  Tlie  leading 
principles  of  construction  have  been  put  in  the  form  of  definite 
rules,  and  illustrated  by  carefully  selected  examples.  To  secure 
convenience  of  reference  and  to  give  completeness  and  vividness 
to  the  general  outline,  these  iTiles,  after  being  separately  discussed, 
are  presented  in  a body  at  the  close  of  the  Syntax. 

7.  The  subdivisions  in  each  discussion  are  developed,  as  far  as 
practicable,  from  the  leading  idea  which  underlies  the  whole  sub- 
ject. Thus  in  the  treatment  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses,  various 
uses,  comparatively  distinct  in  themselves,  are  found  to  centre 
around  some  leading  idea  or  thought,  thus  imparting  to  the  sub- 
ject both  unity  and  simplicity. 

8.  Topics  which  require  extended  illustration  are  first  present- 
ed in  their  completeness  in  general  outline,  before  the  separate 
[loints  are  discussed  in  detail.  Thus  a single  page  often  foreshad- 
ows all  the  leading  features  of  an  extended  discussion,  imparting  a 
completeness  and  vividness  to  the  impression  of  the  learner,  im- 
possible under  any  other  treatment. 

9.  Special  care  has  been  taken  to  explain  and  illustrate  with 


PREFACE. 


V 


the  requisite  fulness  all  difficult  and  intricate  subjects.  The  Sub- 
junctive Mood — that  severest  trial  of  the  teacher’s  patience — has 
been  presented,  it  is  hoped,  in  a form  at  once  simple  and  compre- 
hensive. The  different  uses  have  not  only  been  carefully  classified, 
but  also  distinguished  by  characteristic  and  appropriate  terms, 
convenient  for  the  class-room. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  prefer  to  begin  with  a more  ele- 
mentary manual  in  the  study  of  Latin,  it  is  in  contemplation  to 
publish  a smaller  Grammar  on  precisely  the  same  plan  as  the  pres- 
ent work,  and  with  the  same  mode  of  treatment.  This  will  be 
especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  those  who  do  not  contemplate 
a collegiate  course  of  study, 

A Latin  Leader,  prepared  with  special  reference  to  this  work 
and  intended  as  a companion  to  it,  will  be  published  at  an  early  day. 

In  conclusion  the  author  cheerfully  acknowledges  his  indebted- 
ness to  other  scholars,  who  have  Irffiored  in  the  same  field.  The 
classification  of  verbs  is  founded  inlpart  on  that, of  Grotefend  and 
Kruger,  a mode  of  treatment  generally  adopted  in  the  recent  Ger- 
man works  on  the  subject,  and  well  exhibited  by  Allen  in  his 
Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs. 

In  Prosody  much  aid  has  been  derived  from  the  excellent 
works  of  Kamsay  and  Ilabenicht. 

On  the  general  subjects  of  Etymology  and  Syntax,  his  indebted- 
ness is  less  direct,  though  perhaps  no  less  real.  Ilis  views  of  phi- 
lology have  been  formed  in  a great  measure  under  the  moulding 
influence  of  the  great  German  masters;  and  perhaps  few  Latin 
Grammars  of  any  repute  have  appeared  within  the  last  half  cen- 
tury, either  in  this  country,  England,  or  Germany,  from  which  he 
has  not  received  valuable  suggestions.  In  the  actual  work  of 
preparation,  however,  he  has  carried  out  his  own  plan,  and  pre- 
sented his  own  modes  of  treatment,  but  he  has  aimed  to  avoid  all 
untried  novelties  and  to  admit  only  that  wTiich  is  sustained  by  the 
highest  authority,  and  confirmed  by  the  actual  experience  of  the 
class-room. 

The  author  is  happy  to  express  his  grateful  acknowledgmenis 
to  the  numerous  Instructors  who  have  favored  him  with  valuable 
suggestions ; especially  to  his  esteemed  friend  and  colleague,  Pro- 
fessor J.  L.  Lincoln,  of  this  University. 


Providence,  R.  I.,  May  lOtli,  18C^ 


^r' 


PEEF ACE 

TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


Parts  First  and  Second  in  this  edition  have  been  en- 
tirely rewritten.  The  recent  researches  in  Comparative 
Philology  have  thrown  new  light  upon  Latin  forms  and 
inflections,  and  have  revealed  many  important  facts  in  the 
development  and  growth  of  the  language.  Accordingly, 
in  the  present  revision,  it  has  been  the  constant  aim  of  the 
author  to  secure  for  the  learner  the  full  benefit  of  all  the 
practical  results  which  these  labors  in  the  field  of  philology 
have  brought  within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  The 
general  plan  and  scope  of  the  work,  however,  remain  the 
same  as  in  former  editions.  Only  such  changes  and  addi- 
tions have  been  made  as  seemed  to  promise  desirable  aid 
to  the  learner.  Care  has  been  taken  to  exclude  from  the 
work  every  thing  which  might  divert  his  attention  from 
the  one  object  before  him — the  attainment  of  a full  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  language. 

In  this  connection,  the  author  desires  to  express  anew 
his  grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  teachers  and  educa- 
tors whose  verdict  of  approval  has  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  success  of  his  works.  To  their  hands  this  new  edi- 
tion is  now  respectfully  committed. 


A.  HARKNESS. 


Drown  University,  July^  1874. 


COI^TEITTS 


PART  FIRST- 
ORTHOGEAPHY. 

Page. 

Alphabet, . . . 1 

English  Method  of  Pronunciation, 2 

Roman  Method, 5 

Continental  Method, 7 

Quantity,  Accentuation, 7 

Euphonic  Laws, 8 

1.  Changes  in  Vowels, 8 

IL  Changes  in  Consonants, 9 

PART  SECOND- 
ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

NOUNS. 

Gender, 11 

Person,  Number,  and  Case, 12 

Declension, 12 

First  Declension, 13 

Greek  Nouns, 14 

Second  Declension, 15 

Greek  Nouns,  . .......  17 

Third  Declension, 18 

Class  I. — Consonant  Stems, 18 

Stems  in  a Labial,  .......  18 

Stems  in  a Dental, 19 

Stems  in  a Guttural, 20 

Stems  in  a Liquid, 20 

Stems  in  /S', 22 

Class  II. — I-Stems, 22 

Special  Paradigms, 26 

Greek  Nouns, 27 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension, 28 

Gender, * . 34 

Fourth  Declension, 36 

Fifth  Declension, 38 

Comparative  View  of  Declensions, 39 

General  Table  of  Gender, 40 


X 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns,  ......  41 

Irregular  Nouns, 41 

I.  Indeclinable, 42 

II.  Defective, 42 

III.  Heteroclites, 44 

IV.  Heterogeneous, 44 

CHAPTER  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Declensions, 46 

Third  Declension, 48 

Irregular  Adjectives, 51 

Comparison, 52 

I.  Terminational  Comparison, 52 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison,  .......  54 

Numerals, 55 

CHAPTER  III. 

PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns, 60 

Possessive, 61 

Demonstrative, 62 

Relative, 64 

Interrogative, 65 

Indefinite, 66 

CHAPTER  IV. 

VERBS. 

Voices,  Moods, 67 

Tenses, 68 

Numbers,  Persons, 69 

Conjugation, 69 

Paradigms  of  Verbs, 70 

Verbal  Inflections, 88 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation, 90 

Verbs  in  io:  Conjugation  III., 93 

Deponent  Verbs, 96 

Periphrastic  Conjugation, 99 

Contractions  and  Peculiarities  of  Conjugation,  . . . .100 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations, 101 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings, 103 

I.  Tense-Signs, 103 

II.  Mood-Signs, 103 

III.  Personal  Endings, 104 

Formation  of  Stems, 106 

I.  Present  Stem, 106 

II.  Perfect  Stem, 107 

III.  Supine  Stem, 108 

Euphonic  Changes, 109 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Pago. 

Classification  of  Verbs,  . . , . , , , . 110 

First  Conjugation,  . . , . , , . .110 

Second  Conjugation,  . . , , , , . 112 

Third  Conjugation,  . , 115 

Fourth  Conjugation, 125 

Irregular  Verbs,  . . . . 127 

Defective  .........  133 

Impersonal  . . . . I35 

CHAPTER  V. 

PARTICLES. 

Adverbs,  , 137 

Prepositions, .138 

Conjunctions, I39 

Interjections, , , , .140 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


Derivation  of  Words, 141 

Derivative  Nouns, 141 

Derivative  Adjectives, 145 

Derivative  Verbs, 147 

Derivative  Adverbs, 149 

Composition  of  Words, 151 

Compound  Nouns, 152 

Compound  Adjectives, 153 

Compound  Verbs, 153 

Compound  Adverbs, .163 


PART  THIRD 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER  I 


SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

Section. 

I.  Classification  of  Sentences, 164 

II.  Simple  Sentences, 166 

III.  Complex  Sentences, 168 

IV.  Compound  Sentences,  169 


CHAPTER  II. 

SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns, , , 160 

Predicate  Nouns,  . , , . , * , * . * . 160 

Appositives, *,*.*.161 

II.  Nominative, * . * * 162 


CONTENTS. 


xii 

Section.  Page, 

III.  Yocative, 163 

IV,  Accusative, 163 

I.  Direct  Object, 164 

Two  Accusatives,  . . . , . . 165 

II.  Subject  of  Infinitive, 167 

III.  Agreement  of  Accusative, 167 

IV.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  sense,  . , . . 168 

With  or  without  Prepositions,  , . . . .168 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space,  . . . . 168 

Accusative  of  Limit, 168 

Accusative  of  Specification,  . . . , . 169 

V.  Accusative  in  Exclamations,  . . . . .169 

Y.  Dative, 170 

I.  Dative  with  Yerbs — Indirect  Object,  . . . .170 

Dative  of  Advantage,  . . . . . . 171 

Dative  with  Compounds, 172 

Dative  of  Possessor, 173 

Dative  of  Agent, 173 

Ethical  Dative, 174 

Two  Datives,  . . . . . . . ,174 

II.  Dative  with  Adjectives,  . . . . . . 175 

III.  Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs, 176 

VI.  Genitive, 176 

I.  Genitive  with  Nouns, 177 

II.  Genitive  with  Adjectives, 180 

III.  Genitive  with  Yerbs, 182 

Predicate  Genitive, 182 

Genitive  of  Place, 183 

Genitive  in  Special  Constructions,  . . . . 183 

Genitive  and  Accusative,  . . . . . ,186 

lY.  Genitive  with  Adveifes,  . . . . . . 187 

YII.  Ablative, 187 

I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means,  . . . . 188 

Ablative  of  Price, 190 

Ablative  with  Comparatives, 190 

Ablative  of  Difference,  . . . . . ,191 

Ablative  in  Special  Constructions,  . . . . 192 

II.  Ablative  of  Place, 193 

Ablative  of  Source  and  Separation,  . . . 195 

III.  Ablative  of  Time, 196 

lY.  Ablative  of  Characteristic, 197 

Y.  Ablative  of  Specification, 198 

YI.  Ablative  Absolute, 198 

YII.  Ablative  with  Prepositions, 199 

YIII.  Cases  with  Prepositions, 199 

CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Agreement  of  Adjectives,  201 

Use  of  Adjectives, 202 

Comparison,  . 203 


CONTENTS, 


xiii 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PKONOUNS. 


Agreement  of  Pronouns;  .... 
Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns, 

Reflexive  Use,  .... 
Demonstrative  Pronouns, 

Relative  Pronouns,  ..... 
Interrogative  Pronouns, 

Indefinite  Pronouns, 

CHAPTER  Y. 


SYNTAX  OF  YEEBS. 

Section. 

I.  Agreement  of  Verbs, 

II.  Use  of  Voices, 

III.  Tenses  of  the  Indicative, 

IV.  Use  of  the  Indicative, 

V.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive, 

Sequence  of  Tenses, 

VI.  Use  of  the  Subjunctive, 

I.  Potential  Subjunctive,  .... 

II.  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  .•  . 

III.  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result,  . 

IV.  Subjunctive  of  Condition,  .... 

V.  Subjunctive  of  Concession, 

VI.  Subjunctive  of  Cause  and  Time, 

VII.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions,  . 

VIII.  Subjunctive  by  Attraction, 

IX.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse,  . ^ . 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua, 
Pronouns,  Adverbs,  etc.,  in  Oratio  Oblique 

VII.  Imperative, 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Imperative,  ...  * 

II.  Use  of  the  Imperative, 

VIII.  Infinitive, 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive,  .... 

II.  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  ..... 

III.  Predicate  after  the  Infinitive, 

IV.  Construction  of  the  Infinitive,  . 

IX.  Subject  and  Object  Clauses, 

X.  Gerund,  . 

Gerundive,  ....... 

XI.  Supine, 

XII.  Participles, 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNTAX  OF  PAETICLES. 

Adverbs, 

Prepositions,  .....  ... 

Conjunctions,  ........ 

Interjections, 


Page. 

204 

206 

206 

208 

209 

210 
211 


212 

214 

215 
219 

219 

220 
223 
223 

225 

226 
232 
236 
238 
242 

244 

245 

246 
248 
248 

248 

249 

250 

251 

252 

253 

254 
258 
262 
263 
266 
267 


270 

271 

271 

274 


xiv 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Rules  of  Syntax, 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

AERANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 

Section. 

I.  Arrangement  of  Words, 

II.  Arrangement  of  Clauses, 


PART  FOURTH. 
PROSODY. 
CHAPTER  I. 


QUANTITY. 

I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity, 

II.  Special  Rules  of  Quantity,  . 

I.  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables,  . 

II.  Quantity  in  Increments,  . 

HI.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings,  . 
lY.  Quantity  of  Stem  Syllables, 


CHAPTER  II. 

VERSIFICATION. 


I.  General  View  of  the  Subject,  . 

I.  Metrical  Feet, 

11.  Verses, 

III.  Figures  of  Prosody, 

• II.  Varieties  of  Verse, 

I.  Dactylic  Verse, 

II.  Anapaestic  V erse, 

III.  Trochaic  Verse, 

IV.  lambic  Verse,  . 

V.  Ionic  Verse,  . 

VI.  Choriambic  Verse, 

VII.  Logaeodic  Verse,  . 

VIII.  Miscellaneous  Verses, 

III.  Versification  of  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid,  and 

APPENDIX 


Juvenal, 


Figures  of  Speech, 

Latin  Authors, 

Roman  Calendar, 

Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures, 

Abbreviations, 

Index  of  Verbs, 

Index  of  Subjects, 

Table  of  corresponding  articles  in  the  two  editions, 


Page. 

274 


. 281 
285 


287 

289 

289 

292 

295 

297 


300 

300 

302 

304 

305 
305 
308 

308 

309 
312 

312 

313 
815 
316 


320 

322 

323 

326 

327 

328 
386 
366 


LATIN  GRAMMAE. 


1.  Latin  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  of  the 
Latin  language.  It  comprises  four  parts  : 

I.  Orthography,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II.  Etymology,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  Syntax,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  Prosody,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


- 

If  ART  FIRST. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


ALPHABET. 


2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of  w, 

1.  U supplies  the  place  of  w. 

2.  H is  only  a breathing,  and  not  strictly  entitled  to  the  rank  of  a 
letter. 

3.  Originally  i and  u were  used  both  as  vowels  and  as  consonants, 
and  accordingly  supplied  the  place  ofy  and  v. 

4.  K is  seldom  used,  and  y and  z occur  only  in  words  of  Greek  origin. 


\ 


2 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


\ 


3.  Classes  of  Letters. — ^Letters  are  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Vowels, a,  e,  i,  o,  ii,  y, 

II.  Consonants  : 

1.  Liquids^  . . . . . . . 1,  m,  n,  r. 

2.  Spirants^ h,  f,  v,  j,  s. 

3.  Mutes  .*1)  Labials — lip-letters,  . . . b,  p,  f,  v. 


d,  t. 

c,  g,  k,  q,  h. 


2)  Dentals — teetli-letters, 

3)  Gutturals — throat-letters, 


4.  Double  Consonants,  . . . . . x,  z. 

4.  Combinations  of  Letters. — We  notice  here,  - 
1.  Diphthongs — combinations  of  two  vowels  in  one  syP''''^''  The  most  [ 
common  are — ae,  oe,  au.  , / 


2.  Double  Consonants — x ==  cs  or  gs  ; z ~ ds  or^.  ' 1 

3.  Ch,  ph,  th  are  best  treated,  not  as  combinations  of  letters^  but  only  [ 


as  aspirated  forms  of  c,  p,  and  t,  as  h is  only  a breathing.  \ 


6.  Pronunciation. — Scholars  in  different  countries 
generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  do  their 
own  languages.  In  this  country,  however,  three  distinct 
Methods  are  recognized,  generally  known  as  the  English^ 
the  Roman^  and  the  Continental}  For  the  convenience 
of  the  instructor,  we  add  a brief  outline  of  each. 

ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  Sounds  of  the  Vowels. 

6.  Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short  English 
sounds.  But 

1.  These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the 
consonants  which  accompany  them. 

2.  Before  r,  final,  or  followed  by  another  consonant,  e,  i,  and  u are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  each  other,  as  in  the  English  her,  fir,  f ur, 
while  a and  o are  pronounced  as  in  fiar,  for. 

3.  Between  qu  and  dr,  or  rt,  a approaches  the  sound  of  o : quar'-tus, 
as  in  quarter. 

7.  Long  Sounds. — Vowels  have  their  long  English 

1 strictly  speaking-,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OP  PRONUNCIATION. 


3 


sounds— a as  in  fate,  e in  mete,  i in  pine,  o in  iiote,  u in 
tube,  y in  typ>e — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a vowel  : se,  si,  ser'-vi, 
ser'-vo,  cor'-nu,  mi!-sy, 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a vowel  or  diphthong  : de!nis, 
de-o'-ritin,  dd-ae,  di-e'd,  ni'-hi-lumd 

3.  In  penultimate  “ syllables  before  a single  consonant 
or  a mute  with  I or  r : pa' -ter,  pa-tresy  A!-thos,  0 -thrys, 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a single 
consonant,  or  a mute  with  I or  do-lo'-ris,  a-grid -o-Ul 

1)  A unaccented  has  the  sound  of  a final  in  America:  men'-sa. 

2)  I and  y unaccented  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound : noh'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Arn'-y-cus  (Am'-e-cus). 

8)  U,  etc. — U has  the  short  sound  before  hi ; and  the  other  vowels 
before  gl  and  tl : Piih-lic -o-la,  Ag-la -o-plion,  At' -las. 

4)  I. — Between  an  accented  «,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  another  vowel,  i some- 
times stands  iovj.  It  is  then  pronounced  like  y in  yet : A-cha-ia  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pe'-ius  (Pom-pe'-yus),  La-to’-ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har-py'-ia  (Har-py'-ya). 

5)  U. — After  q and  generally  after  /7,  has  the  sound  of  w:  qui 
(kwi),  qua  ; lin’-gua  (lin'-gwa),  lin-guis.  Sometimes  also  after  s ; sua'-de-o 

A (swa'-de-o). 

G)  Compound  Words. — When  the  first  part  of  a compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
"^the  short  sound : a in  ab'-es,  e in  red' -it,  i in  m'-it,  0 in  oh' -it,  prod' -est.  But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (8,  1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds : post' -quam,  hos'-ce. 
^ E'-ti-am  and  quo' -ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  simple  words. 

8.  Short  Sounds. — ^Vowels  have  their  short  Englisli 
sounds — a as  in  fat,  e in  met,  i in  pin,  o in  not,  u in  tuh, 
y in  myth — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a consonant : a! -mat, 
s^cd-met,  rex' -it,  sol,  C07i'-sul,  Td-thys : except  2'>ost,  es  final, 
/ ■ and  os  final  in  plural  cases  : res,  di'-es,  hos,  a'-gros, 

^ 2.  In  all  syllables  before  cc,  or  any  two  consonants  ex- 


1 In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  A that  is  only  a breathing:  hence  the  first 
i in  nihilum  is  treated  as  a vowel  before  another  vowel . for  the  same  reason,  ch,  pli, 
and  th  are  treated  as  single  mutes ; thus  th  in  Athos  and  Othrys. , 

2 Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 


4 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PKONUNCIATION. 


cept  a mute  with  I ox  r (7,  3 and  4) : reod-it^  beV-lum^  rex-d- 
run%  heUo^-Tum, 

3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants  : doin' -i-nus^  pat'-ri-bus, 

1)  Aj  e,  or  o,  before  a single  consonant  (or  a mute  with  I or  r)  fol- 
lowed by  2,  or  before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound : a'-ci-es^ 
a'-cri-a^  me-re-o^  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a single  consonant  or  a mute 
with  I or  r,  except  bl^  has  the  long  sound : Pu’-ni-cus^  sa-lu' -hri-tas. 

3)  Compounds.  See  Y,  6.) 


f: 


3.  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs. 


9.  Ae  like  e : Cae'-sar^  Daed'-d4icsd 
Oe  like  e : Oe'da^  Oed'-i-piisd 
Au,  as  in  author  : au' -rum, 

Eu,  . . . neuter  : neu'-ter. 


1.  Ei  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  height,  coin : Jiei,  proin.  See  Synaeresis,  669,  II. 

2.  Ui,  as  a diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  ^,  occurs  in  cw^,  hui^  huic. 

3.  Sounds  of  the  Consonants. 

10.  The  consonants  are  pronounced  in  g’eneral  as  in 
English,  but  a few  directions  may  aid  the  learner. 

11.  C,  G-,  S,  Tj  and  X are  generally  pronounced  with 
their  ordinary  English  sounds.  Thus 

1.  O and  g are  soft  (like  s and  j)  before  c,  ^,  y,  ac,  and  oe^  and  hard  in 
other  situations : ce  -do  (se'-do),  ci'-vis^  Cy’-rus^  cad -do cod -pi.^  a' -ge  (a'-je), 
a'-gi ; ca'do  (ka'-do),  cd-go^  cmn^  Ga'-des.  But 

1)  67A  is  hard  like  ^ Oho' -r us  (kd-rus),  (Ki'-os). 

2)  G has  the  soft  sound  before  g soft : af-ger. 

2.  S generally  has  its  English  sound,  as  in  son,  this : sa'-cer.,  si'-dus. 

1)  S final.,  after  e,  ae.,  au.,  5,  m.,  tz,  is  pronounced  like  z : spes.,  praes, 
laus,  urbs,  M'-ems,  mons,  pars. 

2)  In  a few  words  s has  the  sound  of  z,  because  so  pronounced  in 
English  words  derived  from  them : Cad-sar,  Caesar ; cau'-sa,  cause ; mu'-sa, 
muse ; mi'-ser,  miser,  etc. 


^ The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-sar  and  Oe'-ta  according  to  7,  3,  but 
the  short  sound  in  Daed'-d-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pus  (Ed'-i-pus)  according  to 
8,  3,  as  e would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  same  situations. 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


5 


3.  T has  its  regular  English  sound,  as  in  time : t't-mor^  io’-tus. 

4.  X has  generally  its  regular  English  sound  like  Ics : rex' -i  (rek^-si). 
But  at  the  beginning  of  a word  it  has  the  sound  of  z : Xan' -thus, 

12.  C,  S,  T,  X — Aspirated, — Before  i preceded  by 
an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a vowel,  c,  5,  and 
X are  aspirated — c,  5,  and  t taking  the  sound  of  sh^  x that 
of  Jcsh:  so'-ci-us  (so'-she-us),  AX-si-um  (Ar-she-um),  ar' di- 
um (ar'-she-um),  anx'-i-us  (ank'-she-us).  C has  also  the 
sound  of  sh  before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented 
syllable  : ca-diX-ce-us  (ca-du'-she-us),  Sic’-y-on  (Sish'-e-on). 

1.  T loses  the  aspirate — (1)  after  5,  or  x;  Os'-ti-a^At'-ti-us^mix'- 
ti-o: — (2)  in  old  infinitives  in  ier ; jlec'-ti-er: — (3)  generally  in  proper 
names  in  tion  (tyon) ; Phi-Us' -ti-on^  Am-phic' -ty-on. 

/ 4.  Syllables. 

1 3.  In  Latin,  every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it 

has  vowels  and  diphthongs  : per-suo! -de,,  men’-sae. 

14.  In  the  division  of  words  into  syllables  : 

1.  After  a vowel  (or  diphthong),  with  the  Long  Sound  (7),  consonants 
are  joined  to  the  following  vowel : pa' -ter,,  pa' -ires ^ a-gro'-rum^  au-di'-vi. 

2.  After  a vowel  with  the  Short  Sound  (8), 

1)  ^ single  or  double  consonant  is  joined  to  such  vowel,  except  after  i 
unaccented : gen'-e-riy  rex'-iy  dom' -i-nus. 

2)  Two  consonants  are  separated : hel'-luniy  men' -say  pat'-ri-hus.  But 
X following  a consonant  is  joined  to  the  preceding  syllable:  Xerx'-es. 

3)  Of  three  or  more  consonantSy  the  last,  or,  if  a mute  with  I or  r,  the 
last  two  are  joined  to  the  following  vowel:  emp'-tuSy  tew! -plumy  claus'-tra, 

3.  But  compound  words  are  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  those  parts  is  entire,  and  ends  in  a consonant : hos'-cey  post'- 
quam. 


ROMAIC  METHOD  OF  PROKUHCIATIOK 


1.  Sounds  of  the  Vowels. 


15.  The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 


LONG. 

a like  a in  father  : al-ris, 
e a made  : e-dl. 


SHORT. 

a like  a in  fast : 

8 e net  : 


a! -met, 
re'-get. 


6 


ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


LONG. 

i like  e in  me  : 
o o rode  : 
n o do ; 


^ -ri, 

o'-ras, 

v!-7id. 


SHORT. 

i like  ^ in  divert  : vV-dU, 

6 o romance:  7116’ -iiU. 

ii  u full : s'tc'-77iils. 


1.  When  a short  vowel  is  lengthened  by  position  (21,  2),  it  retains  its 
short  sound : sic7it^  u as  in  su’-mus. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  the 
Latin  u and  i : Ny-sa. 

3.  1. — Between  an  aceented  e,  0,  or  ?/,  and  another  vowel,  i gener* 
allyv^^ids  for  j.  It  is  then  pronounced  like  y in  yet  {11) : A-cha-ia 
(A-ka'->a). 

4.  U.^After  q,  and  generally  after  y,  u has  the  sound  of  w:  qul 
(kwe),  Un’-gw  (lin'-gwa).  So  also  in  cul^  liu\  liulc^  and  sometimes  after 
s ; sud'-de-o  (swa'-de-o). 


2.  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs. 

1 6.  In  diphthongs  each  vowel  retains  its  own  sound  : 
a©  (for  at)  like  the  English  ccT/e  (yes)  : 7ne7i'-saed 
au  like  ow  in  how  : cau'-sd, 

oe  (for  oi)  like  oi  in  coin  : fod-di^s,  ^ 

1.  Ei,  as  in  veil^  and  eu,  with  the  sounds  of  e and  it  combined,  occur^  j 
in  a few  words : dein^  neu' -ter. 


3.  Sounds  of  the  Consonants. 

17.  Most  of  the  consonants  are  pronounced  nearly  as 
in  English,  but  the  following  require  special  notice  : , 


C like  h in  king 


g 

j 

s 

t 

V 


d 

y 

s 

t 

10 


get : 
yet  : 
son : 
time 
we  : 


eddes  (kalas),  cV-vt  (kewe). 
ge~7iijts,  7'd-gis, 
jd’-cU  (yaket),  jud-smn. 
sd!-ch\  so-7'67\ 
ii-7nd7%  todds. 
vdJ-diiiv^  vl'-ct. 


4.  Syllables. 

18.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs : mo' -re, 
q)cr-md' -de.^  men'-sae. 


1 Combining  tbo  sound??  of  a and  1. 


CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


7 


2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it— ^ 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable  pa -ter,  pa’-tres,  ge'-ne-rx,  do-mi-nus,  nd-scit,  si'-stis, 
elau'-strd,  men'-sd,  hel'-lum,  jus -sum,  tern' -plum,  cmp'-ius.  But 

3.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  is  entire  and  ends  in  a consonant ; dh'-es,  dh-l’-re. 

OONTHsTEKTAL  METHOD  OF  PROMUMCI AXIOM. 

19.  The  Continental  Method,  as  adopted  in  this  coun- 
try, is  almost  identical  with  the  Roman,  except  m the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  consonants,  in  which  it  more  nearly 
/ coincides  with  the  English.  See  15,  16,  10,  11, 12,  and  18. 


QUAMTITY. 


are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long, 


21.  Long. — A syllable  is  long  in  quantity 

1.  If  it  contains  a dipththong  : haec, 

2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  J,  or  any  tv/o  conso- 


nants, except  a mute  with  ^ or  r ; rex^  mans, 

22.  Short. — A syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 

by  another  vowel  or  a diphthong  : vi'-ciey 

23.  Common. — A syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
rally short,  is  fpjlo^d  by  a mute  with  ^ or  r.*  a'-gri. 

1.  The  signs  ",  ",  " are  used  to  mark  quantity,  the  first  denoting  that 
the  syllable  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long,  the  second  that  it  is  short,  and- 


the  third  that  it  is  commoh:  d-gro-rum. 


ACCEMTUATIOM.  ^ 

24.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the 
first : me7i'’Sg. 

1 By  some  grammarians  a mute  and  a liquid  are  always  joined  to  tlie  following 
vowel,  as  also  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  a Greek  word:  i'-gnU, 
o’-mnls,  i’-pse,  but  there  is  little  evidence  that  the  ancient  Romans  divided  words  in 
this  way. 

2 Common,  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.  For  rulqs  of  quantity  see 
Prosody.  Two  or  three  leading  facts  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner. 

3 No  account  is  taken  of  the  breathing  h (2,  2), 


8 


EUPHONIC  LAWS. 


25.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on 
the  Penult  ^ if  that  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult  ho-no'-rls^  con!-su-lis, 

1.  Genitives  in  i for  ii  and  vocatives  in  i for  ie  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form : in-ge'-ni  for  in-ge'-ni-i ; Mer-cu'-ri  for  Mer-cu'-ri-e. 

2.  Penults  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

3.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words ; but 

1)  The  enclitics,  que^  ve^  ne^  throw  back  their  accents  upon  the  last 
«syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended : horn! -i-ne’ -que^  mcn- 
m’-qu^. 

2)  Facio^  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its 
own  accent : cal-e-fd' -cit. 

4.  A second  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third  syllable  before 
the  primary  accent, — on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable  of  the 
word,  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  third : mon' -iL-e' -runt ; mon'- 
u-e-rd' -7nus  ; in-stau' -rd-ve' -runt. 

5.  In  the  same  way,  a third  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syllable  before  the  second  accent : hon' -o-rif  -%-cen-tis' -si-inus. 

EUPHOOTO  LAWS. 

\ 

26.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  accord- 
ance with  certain  euphonic  laws. 

1.  Changes  in  Vowels. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened,  especially  in  compensation 
for  the  dropping  of  consonants:  sevDoms^  servos;  regems.,  reges, 

28.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of 
the  consonants  which  follow  thein.  Thus  e is  the  favorite  vowel 
before  r,  i before  5,  u before  Z,  especially  before  I followed  by 
another  consonant:  cinis.,^^^ris  for  cinisis  (35),  ashes;  vult  for 
volt.,  he  wishes. 

1.  E final  is  a favorite  vowel:  serve  iov  servo,  0 slave:  mmwre,  for 
moneri,  for  moraris,  you  are  advised.  See  34.  ' 

2.  B is  also  a favorite  vowel  for  i, 

1)  Before  x or  two  or  more  consonants,  especially  in  final  syllables  ; 
judex  iov  judix,  judge  ; rriHles  for  milets  for  milits,  soldier. 


1 In  the  subsequent  pages  the  pupil  will  be  expected  to  accent  words  in  pronun- 
ciation according  to  these  rules.  The  quantity  of  the  penult  in  words  of  more  than 
two  syllables  will  therefore  be  marked  (unless  determined  by  21  and  22),  to  enable  him 
to  ascertain  the  place  of  the  accent. 

2 Penult,  the  last  syllable  but  one;  antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 


EUPHONIC  LAWS. 


9 


2)  In  accented  syllables  before  i,  o,  or  u:  ea  for  ia,  this ; cl  for  n, 
these ; eo  for  io,  I go ; cunt  for  iunt,  they  go. 

29.  Vowels  are  sometimes  shortened,  regularly  so  in  final 
syllables  before  m and  t;  emm  for  erdm^  I was;  %rdt  for  erdt,  he 
was. 

30.  Vowels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  changed  to  weaker 
vowels,  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of  the  word  by  inflec- 
*tion,  composition,  etc. 

The  order  of  the  vowels  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest  is 
^ as  follows: 

^ a,  o,  u,  e,  i: 

conficio  for  confaeio,  I accomplisli ; serms  for  servos,  slave;  fruc- 
tibus tor  fructubus,  with  fruits;  carminis  for  carminis,  of  song. 

1.  Diphthongs  are  also  sometimes  weakened : 

ae  (for  ai)  to  i or  e : incldit  for  incaedit^  he  cuts  into, 
oe  (for  oi)  tou  or  i:  'punlre  for  poenlre,  to  punish, 
au  to  u or  5 : excludo  for  exclaudo^  to  shut  out. 

31.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,' sometimes  even  at  the  beginning:  tempulum,  tempUm, 
temple ; pateris,  patris,  of  a father ; animale,  anim&l,  an  animal ; 
esum^  sum^  I am. 

32.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted 

I.  Into  a DIPHTHONG : mensd-\  mensae^  tables. 

II.  More  frequently  into  a long  vowel.  In  this  case  the 

second  vowel  generally  disappears.  Thus  e and^i  often  disappear 
after  and  o ; dmdmrdt^  ama-e-rat^  dmdrat^  he  had  loved; 

dmdmsse^  ama-isse^  dmdsse^  to  have  loved.  But 

1.  The  first  vowel  disappears  in  the  following  endings : 

1)  In  a-is,  in  Declension  I. : mensa-is^  menslSy  with  tables. 

2)  In  o-is,  and  o-i,  in  Declension  II. : servo-is,,  servls,,  for  slaves, 
servo-i,  servl,  slaves..  But  in  the  Dative  Singular,  o-i  becomes  05  scrvo-i, 
servo,  for  the  slave. 

3)  In  a-o  in  Conjugation  I. : dmd-o,  amo,  I love. 

2.  A-i  becomes  e in  the  Subjunctive  of  Conjugation  I. : dma-is,  dmes, 
you  may  love. 

3.  O-a  becomes  a in  neuters  of  Declension  II. : templo-d,  tcmplu, 

temples.  ^ 

II.  Changes  in  Conson'ants. 

33.  S uniting  with  a preceding  c ov  g forms  x : dux  for  dues, 
leader ; rex  for  regs,  king. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


ff  Jl 

are  advised.  See  28,  1. 


'•  >-<■  rt  — .. 

^ f -pQ^  D and  t are  generally  dropped  before  s ; Upts  for  lapids, 

\^j  std'ie ; aetds  for  aetats,  age ; milh  for  milets^  milits,  soldier. 


•<'“"^6.,  D and  t are  generally  dropped  before  s ; Upts  for  lapids, 


PART  SECOND. 

• ^ 

ETYMOLOGY.  r 

t 


ETYMOLOGY. 


I 37;  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 


and  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — JVbuns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 


CHAPTER  I. 


NOUNS. 


39.  A Noun  or  Substantive  is  a name,  as  of  a person, 
-J  place,  or  thing  : Cicero,  Cicero  ; Romd,  Rome ; d^imids, 
' house. 

° 1.  A Proper  Noun  is  a proper  name,  as  of  a person  or  place : Cicero  ; 

Jloma. 

2.  A Common  Noun  is  a name  common  to  all  the  members  of  a class 
of  objects : vir^  a man ; eqiius^  horse.  Common  nouns  include 

1)  Collective  Nouns — designating  a collection  of  objects:  populus, 
people;  exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns — designating  properties  or  qualities  : virtus,  virtue ; 
justitia,  justice. 

3)  Material  Nouns — designating  materials  as  such:  aurum,  gold; 
licjnum,  wood ; aqvia,  water. 

40.  Nouns  have  Gender^  Number^  Person^  and  Case, 


GENDEK. 


11 


I.  Gender. 

41.  There  are  three  genders^ — 3fasculine^  Feminine^ 
and  Neuter. 

1.  In  some  nouns,  gender  is  determined  by  signification ; in  others,  by 
endings. 

42.  Generax  Rules  for  Gender. 

1.  Masculines. 

^1.  Names  of  3Iales : Cicero;  vlr^  man  ; rex^  king. 

2.  Names  of  Fivers^  Yfinds^  and  Months:  Fheniis^ 
Rhine  ; Notics,  south  wind  y'JIartiUs,  March. 

II.  Feminines. 

1.  Names  of  Females  : miXlier^  woman  ; leaena^  lioness. 

2.  Names  of  Countries.^  Tovms^  Islands^  and  Trees: 
AegyptUs^  Egypt ; iZdmd,  Rome  ; Felos^  Delos  ; pArtis^ 
pear-tree. 

III.  Neuters. 

1.  Indeclinable  Nouns : fds^  right ; niliil^  nothing. 

2.  Words  and  Clauses  used  as  indeclinable  nouns:  trisVe 
vdle^  a sad  farewell. 

43.  Kemarks  on  Gender. 

1.  Exceptions. — The  endings  ^ of  nouns  sometimes  give  them  a gen- 
der at  variance  with  these  rules.  Thus 

1)  The  names  of  rivers — Alhula^  Allia^  LetJie^  Styx^  and  sometimes 
others,  are  feminine  by  ending. 

2)  Some  names  of  countries^  toions,  islands^  trees ^ and  animals^  take 
the  gender  of  their  endings.  See  53,  1. 

2.  Masculine  or  Feminine. — A few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a few  names  of  animals  arc  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine^  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine : clv^,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ; 5os,  ox,  cow. 

3.  Epicene  Nouns  have  but  one  gender,  but  are  used  for  both  sexes. 
They  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals,  and  usually  take  the  gender  of 
their  endings : anser,  goose,  masculine ; aquild,  eagle,  feminine. 

1 In  English,  Gender  denotes  sex.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males ; 
feminine  nouns, ; and  neuter  nouns,  objects  which  are  neither  male  nor  fe- 
male. In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  is  applied-  only  to  the 
names  of  males  and  females ; while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an 
artificial  distinction  according  to  grammatical  rules. 

2 Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  1)0  ncliced  in  connection 
with  the  several  declensions. 

2 


12 


PERSON  AND  NUMBER.  CASES,  DECLENSION 


II.  Person  and  Number. 

44.  The  Latin j like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and  = 
two  numbers.  The.  first  person  denotes  the  speaker  ; the 
second,  the  person  spoken  to  ; the  third,  the  person  spoken 
of.  The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural  more  ^ 
than  one. 

III.  Cases.^ 


45.  The  Latin  has  six  cases  : 


Names, 

Nominative, 

Genitive, 

Dative, 

Accusative, 

Vocative, 

Ablative, 


Englisli  EqLuivalcnts. 

Nominative. 

Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 
Objective  with  to  ot  for. 
Objective. 

Nominative  Independent. 
Objective  with  from^  hy^  in^  with. 


1.  Oblique  Cases. — The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative, 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2.  Locative. — Tlie  Latin  has  also  a few  remnants  of  another  case, 
called  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which. 


DECLENSION. 

46.  Stem  and  Endings. — ^The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a word  are  formed  is  called  Declension. 
It  consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  endings  to  one  com- 
mon base  called  the  stem. 

1.  Meaning. — Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments— the  stem^  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the  case- 
ending.^  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus  in  reg-is^  of  a king,  the  general  idea,  Tcing^  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
rcg^  the  relation  o/,  by  the  ending  is. 

2.  Cases  alike. — But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative^  Accusative^  and  Vocative  in  neuters  are  alike,  and 
in  tlie  plural  end  in  g. 


1 The  case  of  a noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains  to  other  words ; 
as,  JoUrCs  'book.  Here  the  possessive'  case  {John's^  shows  that  John  sustains  to  the 
book  the  relation  of  possessor. 


FIRST  DECLENSIOI^. 


13 


2)  The  NominatiDe  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  the  singular  of 
nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension  (51).^ 

3)  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 


47.  Five  Declensions. — In  Latin  there  are  five  declen- 
sions,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  endings  of  the 
Stem,  or  of  the  Genitivi^  Singular,  as  follows: 


Dec.  I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

1.  The  five 


iXil-EXDIXGS.  GENITIVE  ENDINGS. 

a ae 

0 i 

1 o/*  consonant.  is 

u us 

e ei 

declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system 


of  inflection,  as  the  case-endings  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

2.  But  these  case-endings  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns 
of  the  Third  Declension,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combi- 
nation with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 


FIKST  DECLENSIOFT:  A NOUNS. 
48.'  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 

a and  e— feminine  y as  and  es, — masculine.'^ 
Nouns  in  a are  declined  as  follows: 

SINGULAR. 


Nom. 

J^xample. 

rnens^. 

Meaning. 
a iahle^ 

Case-Endings. 

a 

Gen. 

mensae. 

of  a tahlc^ 

ae 

Dat. 

mensae. 

iOj  for  a table ^ 

ae 

Acc. 

mensem. 

a table^ 

am 

Voc. 

mensa. 

0 table^ 

a 

Ahl 

mensU/, 

wiih^  from^  by  a tahle^ 

a 

Nom. 

mensae. 

PLURAL. 

tables^ 

ae 

Gen. 

mensariiia. 

of  tables^ 

arum 

Dat. 

mensis. 

to^  for  tables^ 

Is 

Acc. 

mensas. 

tables^ 

as 

Voc. 

mensae. 

0 tables^ 

ae 

Ahl. 

mensis. 

voitli^  from^  by  tables. 

Is. 

1 And  in  some  nouns  of  Greek  origin. 

2 That  is,  nouns  of  this  declension  in  a 'and  e are  feminine,  and  those  in  as  and 

es  are  masctlline.  • 


14 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  First  Declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  Paradigm,  observe 

1)  That  the  stem  is  mensa^  and  that  the  Nominative  Singular  is  the 
same. 

2)  That  the  several  cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
case-endings. 

3)  That  these  case-endings  contain  the  stem-ending  a (47,  2),  which 
disappears  in  the  ending  Is,  contracted  from  a-Is,  in  the  Dative  and  Abla- 
tive Plural.  See  32,1,1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  mensa  decline : 

Ala^  wing ; aqua^  water ; causa^  cause ; fortuna^  fortune. 

4.  Locative. — Names  of  towns  and  a very  few  other  words  have  a 
Locative  Singular  in  ae : Romae^  at  Rome ; militiae^  in  war. 

5.  Exceptions  in  Gender, — Hadria^  Adriatic  Sea,  is  masculine ; some- 
times also  dama^  deer,  and  talpa ^ mole.  See  also  43,  1. 

6.  Article. — The  Latin  has  no  article.  A noun  may  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  the  connection  in  which  it  is  used,  be  translated  either  with- 
out any  article,  with  a or  an^  or  with  the : corona^  crown,  a crown,  the 
crown. 

49.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  As,  an  old  form  for  «e,  in  the  Genitive  of  fdmilia^  in  composition 
with  pater ^ mater ^ flliuSy  and  /Ilia : paterfamilias^  father  of  a family. 

2.  Ai  for  the  genitive  ending  ae,  in  the  poets : aulai  for  aulae^  of  a 


hall. 


3.  Um  for  arum  in  the  Gen.  Plur, : Dardanidum  for  Dardanidarum^ 
of  the  descendants  of  Dardanus. 

4.  Abiis,  the  original  form  for  Is,  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur.,  espe- 
cially in  dea^  goddess,  and  filia^  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
same  cases  of  deus^  god,  and  filius^  son : deahus  for  deis^  to  goddesses. 

50.  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  e,  as, 
and  es  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Epitome,  epitome,  Aeneas,  Aeneas,  VjiltQsf pyrites. 


N.  epitome 
G.  epitomes 
D.  epitomae 
A.  epitomen 
V.  epitome 
A.  epitome 


SINGULAR. 

Aeneas 

Aeneae 

Aeneae 


pyrites 
pyritae 
pyritae 
pyrlt^n 
pyrite,  a 
pyrltC,  a 


Aeneam,  an 


Aenea 

Aenea. 


15 


JV.  epitomae 
G.  epitomaram. 
D.  epitomis 
A.  epitomas 
V.  epitomae 
A.  epitomis. 


PLURAL. 


* V 


pyritae 

pyritariim 

pyritis 

pyritas 

pyritae 

pyrItIs. 


1.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1)  That  in  the  Plural  and  in  the  Dative  Singular,  Greek  nouns  ar« 
declined  like  mensa. 

2)  That  the  stem-ending  a is  changed  into  e in  certain  cases  of  nouns 
in  e and  es. 

2.  Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined 
like  mensa.  Many  in  e have  also  a form  in  a ; epitome.^  epitoma.^  epitome. 


SECOiTD  DECLEITSIOM’:  O ITOUl^S. 

5 1 . Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 
er,  ir,  us,  and  os — masculine;  um,  and  on — neuter. 
Nouns  in  6r,  and  um^  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Servus,  slave. 

Puer,  6oy.  field. 

SINGULAR. 

Templum,  templi 

iV!  servKLS 

puer 

ager 

templikm 

G.  servi 

pueri 

agri 

templi 

D.  servo 

puero 

agro 

templo 

A.  serviim 

pueriim 

agriiiia 

templiim 

V.  serve 

puer 

ager 

templiim 

A.  servo 

puero 

agro 

PLURAL. 

templo 

JV.  servi 

pueri 

agri 

tempi  sl 

G.  servortim 

puerorikm  agrortam 

templorum 

D.  servis 

pueris 

agris 

templis 

A.  servos 

pueros 

agros 

templa 

V.  servl 

pueri 

agri 

temp  Ili 

A.  servis. 

pueris. 

agris. 

templis. 

1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension,  the  stem  ends  in  o. 

2.  In  the  Paradigms,  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,  puero agro^  and  templo. 

2)  That  the  stem-ending  o becomes  u in  the  endings  us  and  wm, 
and  e in  served  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  o,  and 
is  (for  o-a,  o-i  and  o-is),^  and  is  dropped  in  the  forms  puer  and  ager. 


See  30,  and  23, 1. 


2 See  32,  II.  1 and  3. 


16 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  stem-ending  o (47,  2),  are  as 
follows : 

NeuL 
um 
I 
o 

iim 
urn 
o 

a 

orum 
Is 
a 
a 
is. 

j 4)  That  puer  and  ager  differ  in  declension  from  servus  in  dropping  the 
endings  us  and  e in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  j Nom.  jower  puerus^  \oc.  puer 
J for  puere. 

5)  That  ager  inserts  e before  r in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.^ 
y 6)  That  templum.^  as  a neuter  noun,  has  the  Nom.,  Accus.,  and  Voc. 
alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a.  See  46,  2,  1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  servus:  dominus,  master. — Like 
puer;  gener,  son-in-law. — Like  ager:  magister,  Ycm^iQY. — Like  templum: 
helium,  war. 

4.  Nouns  in  er  and  ir.— Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  ager,  but 
' the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  like  puer. 

1)  Nouns  in  ir : vir,  viri,  man. 

2)  Compounds  in  fer  and  ger : arrmger,  armigh'i,  armor-bearer ; sig- 
nifer, signiferi,  standard-bearer. 

3)  A-dulter,  adulterer;  Celtiber,  Celtiberian ; ^ gener,  son-in-law;  Iber, 
Spaniard; 3 Liber,  Bacchus;  llberi,  children;  Mulciber,  Vulcan; 3 pres- 
bgter,  elder ; socer,  father-in-law ; vesper,  evening. 

7 5.  Deus. — Declined  thus ; Sing,  deus,  del,  deo,  deum,  deus,  ded : Plur. 

N.  and  V . del,  dii,  dl ; G.  deorum,  deum ; D.  and  A.  dels,  dlls,  dls,  Acc. 
deos. 


Masc. 


Nom. 
Gen. 
Bat. 
Acc. 
V oc. 
Abl. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Acc. 

Voc. 

Abl. 


1 The  endings  of  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  in  er. 

2 In  puer,  e belongs  to  the  stem,  and  is  accordingly  retained  in  all  the  cases;  but 
in  ager  it  is  inserted  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  as  agr  would  bo  difficult  to  pro- 
nounce. 

3 Celtiber  and  Iber  have  e long  in  the  Gen.,  and  Mulciber  sometimes  drops  <j. 


■SECOND  DECLENSION, 


17 


' 6.  Locative. — Names  of  Towns  and  a few  other  words  have  a Loca- 

^hve  Singular  in  i : Corinthi^  at  Corinth ; Ephesi^  at  Ephesus ; huiri\  on  the 
ground, 

53.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  I for  a by  contraction  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  without  change  of  accent: 
ingeni  for  ingenii^  of  talent. 

2.  I for  ie,  common  in  proper  names  in  ius^  without  change  of  accent : 
3Iercu'rl  for  Mercurie,  Mercury.  Also  in  fill  iovfllie,  son ; gem  ioc  genie, 
guardian  spirit. 

3.  Us  for  e in  the  Yoc.  of  deus,  god,  rare  in  other  words. 

4.  Um  for  drwm,  common  in  a few  words  denoting  money,  weight,  and 
measure:  talentum  fov  talentorum,  of  talents;  also  in  a few  other  words: 
deum  for  deorum;  liberum  for  libh'orum j Argivum  for  Argivorum. 

53.  Exceptions  in  Gender. 

1.  Feminine : — (1)  See  42,  II.,  l)ut  observe  that  many  names  of  coun- 
iries,  towns,  islands,  and  trees,  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings.  (2)  Most 
names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine:  also  alvus,  belly;  carbasus,  sail; 
eblus,  distaff ; humus,  ground ; vannus,  sieve.  (3)  A few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  Neuter :—pMdgus,  sea;  ^irus,  poison;  vulgus  (rarely  masc.),  com- 
mon people. 

54.  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows : 

Delos,  r.d  Delos.  Androgeos,  Androgeos,  Ilion,  Ilium. 


SINGULAR. 

Androgeos 
Androgeo,  1 
Androgeo 
AndrogeoBi,  o 
Androgeos 
Androgeo* 


IlioM. 

Illi 

Illo 

Ilion 

Ilioii 

Ilio. 


Al/De^s 
G.  Deli 
D.  Delo 
A.  Delon 
F.  Delo 
A.  Delo. 


1.  The  Plural  of  nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain 
Greek  endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  on  in  the  Gen. 

2.  Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  in  us  and  wm, 
and  are  declined  like  servus  and  regnum.  Many  in  os  or  on  have  also  a 
form  in  us  or  um, 

3.  Greek  nouns  in  eits.  See  68  and  68,  1. 

4.  Panthus  has  Yoc.  Panthu  ; pelagus,  Acc.  V\m\,  pdage. 


^ M stands  for  masculine^  F for  feminine^  and  N fai*  neuter. 


18 


THIKU  DECLEXSION. 


THIRD  DECLENSIOK:  CONSONANT  AND  I NOUNS. 
55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a.,  e,  i,  o,  y,  c,  1,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

'|"i50.  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  L‘ 


CONSONANT  ’ STEMS. 


57.  Stems  endixg  ix  a Labial  : b or  p. 


Princeps, 

cc  leader^  chief. 

Case-Ending 

SINGULAR. 

JV.  princeps. 

a leader. 

s 

G.  principis. 

of  a leader. 

is 

I),  principi. 

to,  for  a leader. 

1 

A.  princip 

a leader, 

cm 

V.  princeps. 

0 leader. 

s 

A.  principi. 

luith,  from,  hy  a leader. 

e 

PLURAL. 

V.  principes. 

leaders, 

es 

G.  principiiiM, 

of  leaders. 

iim 

D.  principil>iis. 

io,  for  leaders. 

ibils 

A.  principes. 

leaders, 

es 

V,  principes. 

0 leaders. 

Cs 

A.  principlI^MS, 

with,  from,  hy  leaders. 

ibiis. 

1.  Stem  and  Case-Endings. — In  this  Paradigm  observe 

1)  That  the  stem  is  princep.,  modified  before  an  additional  syllable  to 
princip.  See  30  and  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  are  appended  to  the  stem  without  change. 
See  47,  2. 

2.  Variable  Radical  Vowel. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  con- 

sonant stems,  short  e or  i generally  takes  the  form  of  e in  the  Nom.  and 
Voc.  Sing,  and  that  of  i in  all  the  other  cases.  princeps.,  prinnpis^ 

and  judex,  judicis  (59),  both  alike  have  e in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and 
i in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  princeps,  the  original  form  of  the  radi- 
cal vowel  is  e and  m judex,  i.  For  a similar  change  in  the  radical  \ owel, 
sec  miles,  militis  (58)  and  carmen,  carminis  (60).  Sec  also  opus,  operis  (61). 


1 For  Gcniler  see  09-115. 


2 See  foot-note  p.  17. 


THIRD  DECLENSIO^f. 


19 


. In  monosyllables  in  hs  the  stem  ends  in  i. 
. Synopsis  of  Declension.  See  86,  88. 

See  ^^r5s,  64. 

58.  Stems  ending  in  a Dental 

: r>  OR  T. 

Lapis,  M,,  stone. 

Aetas,  E.,  age, 

singular. 

Miles,  M.,  soldier. 

N.  lapis 

aetas 

miles 

G.  lapidis 

aetatis 

militis 

D.  lapidi 

aetati 

militi 

A.  lapidem. 

aetatem 

militem 

V.  lapis 

aetas 

miles 

A.  lapide 

aetati 

\PLURAL. 

milite 

N.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

G.  lapidtaasi. 

aetatikm 

militiam 

D.  lapidil>ii.s 

aetatiiaia  s 

militil>iis 

A.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

V.  lapides 

aetates 

milites 

A.  lapidilaiis. 

aetatifews. 

militil>iis. 

pos,  M.,  grandson. 

Virtus,  E.,  virtue.  Caput,  n.,  hea 

SINGULAR. 

N.  nepos 

virtus 

caput 

G.  nepotis 

virtutis 

capitis 

B.  nepoti 

virtuti 

capiti 

A.  nepotem 

virtutem 

caput 

V.  nepos 

virtus 

cap  iit 

A.  nepote 

virtutaS 

PLURAL. 

capite 

N.  nepotes 

virtutes 

capitii 

G.  nepotiim 

virtutiim 

capitiam 

B.  nepotii>iuLS 

virtuti'biis 

capitilaiis 

A.  nepotes 

virtutes 

capiti 

V.  nepotes 

virtutes 

capiti 

A.  nepotii>ias. 

virtutilbiis. 

capitil^ias, 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  these  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lapid^  aetdt^  miUt^  nepot^  virtut  and  caput. 

2)  That  miles  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  ij  and  caput.,  u,  i.  See  6Y,  2. 

3)  That  the  dental  d or  t is  dropped  before  s : lapis  for  lapids^  aetas 
for  actatSj  miles  for  mileis,  virtus  for  virtuts.  See  36’. 


20 


TIIIKD  DECLENSION. 


4^)  That  the  case-endings,  except  in  the  neuter  caput  (46,  2),  are  the 
same  as  those  given^above.  See  5Y. 

5)  That  the  neuter^  capMt^  has  no  case-ending  in  the  Nom,,  Acc.,  and 
Yoc.  Sing.,  a in  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and  Yoc.  Plur.,  and  the  case-endings  of 
masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  Neuter  stems  in  at  drop  t in  the  Nom.  Sing,  and  end  in  a:  Nom., 

poema^  Gen.,  poematis  ; pohndt.  These  nouns  sometimes  have  Is  for 

thus  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. : poematis  for  poematibus, 

3.  Synopsis  of  Declension.  See  69,  78-84. 

59.  Stems  ending  in  a Guttural  : c or  G. 


Rex,  M., 

Judex,  M.  & E.,  Radix,  e.. 

Dux,  M.  & E., 

hmg. 

judge. 

root. 

leader. 

singular. 

N.  rex 

judex 

radix 

dux 

G.  regis 

judicis 

radicis 

diicis 

D.  rega 

judici 

radici 

duel 

A.  reg«3ii 

judicem. 

radicem 

ducem. 

V.  rex 

judex 

radix 

dux 

A,  rege 

judice 

radice  • 

duc^ 

PLURAL. 

N,  reges 

judices 

radices 

duces 

G.  regMin 

judiciiiii. 

radiciiiii 

duciim 

D.  regi'biks 

judicilpiis 

radici'biis 

ducil>iis 

A.  rcgSs 

judices 

radices 

duces 

V,  reges 

judices 

radices 

duces 

A.  regitoiis, 

• judici‘l>iis. 

radicii>iis. 

ducil>iis. 

1.  Stems 

and  Case-Endings.- 

—In  the  Paradigms  observe 

I)  That  the  stems  are  reg^judic^  radio  and  due- 

—judic  with  the  varia- 

ble  vowel — 

e.  See  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  are 

those  given  in  57. 

8)  That  s in  the  Nom.  and  Yoc.  Sing,  unites  with  c or  ^ of  the  stem 

and  forms  x. 

See  3.3. 

2.  Synopsis  of  Declension. - 

-See  Nouns  in  2c: 

92-98. 

60.  Ste^s  ending  in 

A Liquid  : L, 

M,  N,  OR  R. 

Sol,  M., 

^ Consul,  M., 

Passer,  m.. 

Pater,  M., 

sun. 

consul. 

sparrow. 

father. 

SINGULAR. 

jsr.  sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

G.  solis 

consulis 

passeris 

patris 

D.  soli 

consuli 

passeri 

patri 

THIRD  DECLEKSIO]^. 


21 


A.  sol^m 

consulam 

passerem  - 

patrem 

K sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

A.  soW 

consult 

passeri 

plural. 

patr^ 

J\i.  soles 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

G. 

consuliam. 

passerikm 

patriim 

D.  Solxl>iB.S 

consuli  l>ik.s 

passeril>iks 

patrii>iis 

A.  soles 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

V.  soles 

consiiles 

passeres 

patres 

A.  soliI>iis. 

consuiii>iis. 

passeri'bits.. 

patril>&s. 

Pastor,  M., 

Leo,  M., 

Virgo,  F., 

Carmen,  N., 

shepherd. 

lion. 

maiden. 

SINGULAR. 

song. 

N.  pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

G.  pastoris 

leonis 

virginis 

carminis 

D.  pastori 

leoni 

virgini 

carmini 

A.  pastor^in. 

leonem. 

virgin^iiiL 

ciirmen 

V.  pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

A.  pastor^ 

leone 

virgine 

PLURAL, 

carmine 

iV  pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carminia; 

G.  pastoriim. 

leoniam 

virginiim 

carminii-Bii 

D.  pastoril>ats 

leonil>iis 

virginil>u..s 

carminil>us 

A.  pastores 

leones 

virgin  e. s 

carminii 

V.  pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carminai 

A.  pa5toill>aj.s. 

leonil>us. 

virginil>us« 

carminil>u.s. 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  the  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  «d/,  consul^  passer^  paler ^ pastor ^ leon^  virgo, 


and  carmen. 

2)  That  virgo  (virgbn)  has  the  variable  vowel,  b,  ij  and  carmen.^  i. 

3)  That  in  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing,  s,  the  usual  case-ending  for  masc. 
and  fern,  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem  pastor  shortens 
o,  while  leo7i  and  vh'gon  drop  n. 

2.  Hiems,  the  only  stem  in  m,  takes  5 in  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing. 
Also  sanguis  (for  sangmns)^  bloody  and  Salamis  (for  SalUmins)^  Salumis, 
which  drop  n before  s. 

3.  Passer,  Pater. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  passer^  but 
those  in  ter,  and  a few  others,  are  declined  like  2)ater.  See  'ZY,  TI.  ^ 

4.  Leo  and  Virgo. — Most  nouns  in  o are  declined  like  Ico,  but  those  itt- 
do  and  go,  with  a few  others,  are  declined  like  virgo.  See.  With 
exceptions. 


X 


22  THIRD  DECLElSrSION. 

5.  Four  stems  in  or  change  o to  u.  See  'ZY,  IV. 

6.  Synopsis  of  Declension.  See  '72,  75-77. 

61.  Stems  ending  in  s. 


Flos,  m., 

Jus,  N., 

Opus,  N., 

Corpus,  N., 

flower. 

right. 

wjorlc. 

SINGULAR. 

body. 

N,  flos 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

G.  floris 

juris 

operis 

corporis 

D.  flori 

juri 

operi 

corpori 

A.  floram 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

F.  flos 

jus 

opiis 

corpus  ^ 

A.  flor^ 

jure 

opertS 

A 

PLURAL.  IJ 

corpori/ 

e' . 

' ^ corporii 

iV.  flore.s 

jura 

opera  F' 

G.  flor-iiiia. 

jurttm  ' 

operiim 

corporiim 

J).  floril>iis 

jurii>MS 

operil>iis 

corporibus 

A.  flores 

jur^ 

oper^ 

corpori 

V.  flores 

jurU 

operli 

corpori 

A,  flori'5>4is. 

juril>iis. 

operil>ia.s. 

corporibus. 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Endings. — In  the  Paradigms  observe 

1)  That  the  stems  are  flos^  jus^  opes^  and  corpos. 

2)  That  opus  has  the  variable  vowel,  O;  u,  and  corpus^  b,  u. 

3)  That  s of  the  stem  becomes  r between  two  vowels : flos^  floris  (for 
flosls).  See  35. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Yoc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-ending.  See  60,  1,  3). 

2.  Synopsis  of  Declension.  See  79,  80,  82-84. 


CLASS  II.— I STEMS. 


63.  Stems  ending  in  i, — JVbuns  in  is, — AhL  Sing, 
in  1,  or  in  I or  S. 


Tussis,  F., 
cough, 

N.  tussis 
G.  tussis 
I),  tussi 
A.  tussim  f 


Turris,  r., 
tower. 

turris 

turris 

turri 

turrim, 


Ignis,  M., 
fire. 

SINGULAR. 

ignis 
ignis 
igni 
ignem 


Case-Endings. 


is 

is 

i 

im,  om 


THIKD  DECLENSION. 


23 


V.  tussis 

turris 

ignis 

is 

A,  tussi 

turri,  e 

igni,  6 

i,  ^ 

PLURAL. 

'iY  tusses 

turres 

ignes 

es 

G.  tussiiiMi 

turri  iina. 

ignitJLiM. 

iura 

B.  tussil>its 

turril>ws 

ignil>iis 

ibiis 

A.  tusses,  is 

turres,  is 

ignes,  is 

es.  Is 

V.  tusses 

turres 

ignes 

es 

A.  tussil>iis. 

turril?&s. 

ignil>ia.s. 

ibiis. 

I.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi^  turri^  and  ig7ii. 

2.  That  the  case-endings  here  given  include  the  stem-ending  i,  which 
disappears  in  certain  cases. 

3.  That  these  Paradigms  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Acc.  and 
Abl.  Sing. 

II.  Like  TUSSIS— Acc.  im,  Abl.  i— are  declined 

1.  Buris ^ plough-tail ; ravis^  hoarseness ; sitis^  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Sing.  (1)  Names  of  rivers  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 

the  Gen. : Tihh'is^  Hispalis.  See  629.  (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  G.  is^ 

and  some  others. 

.j^II.  Like  TURRIS — Acc.  im,  em ; Abl.  i,  e — are  declined 

CldviSj  key ; febris^  fever ; messis^  harvest ; navis^  ship  ; puppis^  s4;ern ; 
restis j rope  ; securis j axe ; sementis^  seed-time ; sirigilisy  strigil. 

1.  FarSy  part,  sometimes  hsiS  partim  in  the  Acc. 

2.  Araris  or  Arary  the  Saone,  and  Ligery  the  Loire,  have  Acc.  im, 
em,  Abl.  i,  e. 

lY.  Like  ignis — Acc.  em,  Abl.  i,  e — are  declined 

AmniSy  river ; anguiSy  serpent ; avisy  bird ; hiliSy  bile ; civisy  citizen ; 
classisy  fleet ; colliSy  hill ; flniSy  end ; 07'hiSy  circle ; postisy  post ; unguisy 
nail,  and  a few  others. 

V 1.  Adjectives  in  er  and  is  used  substantively  have  the  Abl.  generally 
'm  i:  September y Septembriy  September;*  fdmiliarisy  familiarly  friend. 
But  adjectives  used  as  proper  names,  andywvems,  youth,  have  e ; Juvena- 
lis* Juvenahy  Juvenal. 

2.  Imber y storm ; rw5,^j5ettatry ; sorSy  lot ; supelleXy  furniture ; vesper y 
evening,  and  a few  others,  sometimes  have  the  Abl.  in  i. 
nJ  3.  Many  names  of  towns  have  a Locative  in  i : Carthdginiy  at  Car- 
%feige ; Tlburiy  at  Tibur.  See  45,  2 ; 48,  4. 


1 Names  of  montlis  are  adjectives  used  substantively,  with  mmsiSy  month,  under- 
stood. 


yVi'f 


THIRD  DECLENSIO]!^, 


24  - 

63.  Stems  ending  in  !•— Neuters  in  g,  al,  and  ar. 


Mare, 

Animal, 

Calcar, 

Case-Endings. 

sea. 

animal. 

spur. 

SINGULAR. 

iV.  mar^ 

animal 

calcar 

G.  maris 

animalis 

calcaris 

is 

F.  marl 

animali 

calcari 

1 

A.  mar^ 

animal 

calcar 

e— 2 

V.  mare 

animal 

calcar 

e— 2 

A.  marl^ 

animali 

calcari 

1 

PLURAL. 

F.  maria. 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

G.  mariijmt 

animali  aiM 

calcarium 

ium 

F.  marifeiis 

animalil>gis 

calcaril>us 

ibiis 

A.  mari^ 

animali^ 

calcarii 

ia 

V.  mariii 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

A.  maril>iis. 

animalil^iis. 

calcaril>us. 

ibus. 

1.  Paradigms. — Observe 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i is  changed  to  e in  the  Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc. 
Sing,  of  marc,  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  ammdl  (for  animale)  and 
calcar  (for  calcare).  See  28,  1 ; 31. 

2)  That  the  case-endings  include  the  stem-ending  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e in  the  Abl.  Sing. : — (1)  Names  of  towns  in  ^ j 
rraeneste. — (2)  Nouns  in  al  and  ar  with  a short  in  Gen. : sdl^  sdle^  salt ; 
nectar.,  nectare.,  nectar. — (3)  Far,  farre,  corn. — (4)  Generally  rete,  net,  and 
in  poetry  sometimes  mare. 

64.  Stems  ending  in  I. — Nouns  in  is,  es,  ayid  s (x) 
preceded  by  a Consonant^ — Abl,  Sing,  in  g. 


Ilostis,  M. 

&F.,  Nubes,  F., 

Urbs,  F., 

Arx,  F., 

enemy. 

cloud. 

city, 

SINGULAR. 

citadel. 

N.  hostis 

nubes 

urbs 

arx^ 

G.  hostis 

nubis 

urbis 

arcis 

1 Soraetimes  marc  in  poetry. 

2 Tlie  (lash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending’  is  sometimes  wanting. 

3 JT  in  arx=cs, — c belonging  to  the  stem,  and  s being  the  Nom.  ending. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


25 


D.  hosti 

nubi 

urbi 

arci 

A.  hostem 

nub^iML 

urb^m 

arc^m 

V.  hostis 

nubes 

urbs 

arx 

A.  host^ 

nub^ 

urb^ 

arc^S 

PLURAL. 

hostes 

nubes 

urbes 

arces 

^G.  hosti&m 

nubiiam. 

urbiiim. 

arciii-511 

D.  hostil>ws 

nubil>iis 

urbii^tis 

arcil>its 

A.  hostes.  Is 

nubes,  is 

urbes,  is 

arces,  is 

V.  hostes 

nubes 

urbes 

arces 

A.  hostil>&s. 

nubil>its. 

urbil>&s- 

arcifeiis. 

1.  Stems.— These  Paradigms  show  a combination  of  i-stems  and  con- 
sonant stems : hosti,  host ; urhi,  urh  ; arci,  arc.  The  i-stem  appears  espe- 
cially in  the  endings  of  the  Gen.  and  Acc.  Plur.  ium,  es,  is.  The  stem 
of  nubes  seems  to  be  nubes,  nubi,  nub. 


65.  Endings  ium,  is. — Like  the  preceding  Paradigms, 
the  following  classes  of  words  have  itim  in  the  Gen.  Plur., 
and  Is  with  es  in  the  Acc.  Plur. 

/ 1.  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rsG  cliens,  clieyitium,  clientes,  is,  client;  ars, 
irtium,  artes,  is,  art ; cohors,  cohortium,  cohortes,  is,  cohort. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  s and  x preceded  by  a consonant,^  and  a few  in  s 
and  X preceded  by  a vowel urbs,  urbium,  urbes,  is,  city;  ai'x,  arcium, 
arces,  is,  citadel ; nox,  noctium,  nodes,  is,  night. 

! 3.  Many  nouns  not  increasing  in  the  genitive : 

1 1)  Most  nouns  in  es  and  is  not  increasing : nubcs,  nubium,  nubes,  is, 

Icfoud  avium,  aves,  is,  bird. 

2)  Caro,  flesh ; imber,  storm  ; linter,  boat ; uter,  leathern  sack ; venter, 
belly ; and  generally  Lisuber,  Insubrian. 

4.  Many  nouns  in  as  and  is  (Plur.  cites  and  Ites).  Thus 

1)  Names  of  nations : Arpinas,  Arpinatium,  etc. ; Samnis,  Sam- 
nitium, etc. 

2)  Optimates  and  Penates,  and  occasionally  other  nouns  in  as. 


1 Some  of  these  often  have  Urn  in  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  pdrens, 
parent,  generally  has. 

2 Except  ipps)  opis  and  the  Greek  nouns,  gryps,  lynx,  sphynx. 

3 Namely,/(22i£C,  glls.  Its,  mas,  nix,  nox,  6s  (ossis),  vis,  generally  fraus  and  mus. 

4 But  canis,  juvenis,  strues,  vates,  have  um;  apis,  mensis,  sedes,  volucris,  iim  or 
i'&m;  compes,  ium. 


26 


THIKD  DECLENSION-. 


66.  Special  Paradigms. 


Sus, 

M.  & F., 

Bos,  m.  & F. 

, Nix,  F., 

Senex,  m.. 

Vis,  F., 

swine. 

ox^  cow. 

snow. 

old  man. 

force. 

SINGULAR. 

N 

sus 

bos  ^ 

nix 

Senex 

vis 

G. 

suis 

bovas 

nivis 

senis 

vis* * 

D. 

sul 

bovi 

nivi 

seni 

vi  2 

A. 

suem 

bovem 

niv^m 

senem 

vim 

V. 

sus 

bos 

nix 

senex 

vis 

A. 

sue 

bove 

nive 

sene 

vi 

PLURAL.  ' 

N 

sues 

boves 

nives 

senes 

vires 

G. 

( bovitim 

suikita 

1 boiiiia 

nivlMim 

seniim 

viriMm 

F-1 

suilaiis 

\ bol^iis  ^ 

sul>iis 

1 bulaMS  ^ 

nivi1>iis 

senilaias 

virillaits 

A. 

sues 

boves 

nives 

senes 

vires 

V. 

sues 

boves 

nives 

senes 

vires 

suilaiis 

j bolaiis 

nivil^^s. 

siilaiis- 

( bul>iiit- 

, senilaiis, 

, virilaiis, 

1.  Stems. — These  are  sit ; hov  ; mg  (nix  — nigs),  mv^  nwi;  senec^  sen  ; 
v'iSj  vi  (sing.),  vlri  (for  visi,  plur.).  See  35. 

2.  Scjs,  and  grus  (crane),  the  only  u stems  in  this  declension,  are 
declined  alike  except  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  PL,  where  grus  is  regular: 
gruibus. 

3.  Jupiter,  Jupiter. — Declined  thus:  Jupiter,  Jovis,  JovI,  Jovem, 
Jupiter,  Jove.  Stems  Jupiter  and  Juv. 


67.  Case-Endings  of  the  Third  Declension. 

SINGULAR. 


Consonant  stems. 


Masc.  & Fern.  Neut. 

N.  S ® 3 

G^.  is  is 

jD.  I i 

A.  em  — 

F.  s — 

A.  0 e 


I-STEMS. 


Masc.  c£*  Fern.  Neut. 

is,  cs,  s e — 3 

is  is 

1 1 

im,  cm  e — 

is,  es,  s e — 

i,  e 1 


1 Bd8='boY8,  bous;  bobus.,  bubus='boYibus^  boubus. 

2 The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing, — vis,  w— are  rare. 

* The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 


GREEK  NOUNS. 


27 


K C3 

G.  um 
D.  ibus 
A.  es 
V.  es 
A.  ibus. 


PLURAL. 


a 

um 

ibus 

a 


a 

ibus. 


es 
ium 
ibus 
es,  Is 
es 

ibus. 


1.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur  : 

1)  E,  for  iy  in  the  Dat.  Sing. : aere  for  aeri. 

2)  Eis,  for  iSy  in  the  Acc.  Plur. : cweis  for  civiSy  cives. 

3)  Greek  Endings.  See  68. 


ia 

ium 

ibus 

ia 

ia 

ibiis. 


GKEEK  NOUiTS. 


68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.  The  following  are  examples  : 


Lampas,  f.,  . 

Phryx,  M.  & F., 

Heros,  m.. 

Case-Endings. 

torch. 

Phrygian, 

hero,  y 

SINGULAR. 

N.  lampas 

Phryx 

heros  / \ 

s 

G.  lampMis,  os 

Phrygis,  os 

herols  \ 

is,  os 

D.  lampadi 

Phrygi 

heroi 

i 

A.  lampadem,  ii 

Phrygem,  a 

heroeiii,  a 

em,  a 

V.  lampas 

Phryx 

heros 

s 

A.  lampade 

Phryge 

heroe 

e 

PLURAL. 

N.  lampades,  es 

Phryges,  es 

heroes,  es 

G.  lampadiiiML 

Phrygikm. 

lieroiiEKi 

iim 

D.  lampadi'biis 

Phrygll>iis 

herolfeiks 

ibus 

A.  lampades,  ^s  Phryges,  a-s 

heroes,  sis 

es,  as 

V.  lampades,  ^s  Phryges,  ^s 

heroes,  es 

es,  es 

A.  lampadil>iks. 

Phrygll>ws. 

hcroil>Bis. 

ibiis. 

Pericles,  M., 

Paris,  M., 

Dido,  F., 

Orpheus,  M., 

Pericles. 

Paris, 

Dido. 

Orpheus. 

X 

SINGULAR.^ 

A^.  Pericles^ 

Paris 

Dido 

Orpheus  ^ 

G.  Periclis,  I 

Paridis,  6s 

Didus,  onls  Orph-eos,  ei,  i 

1 The  Plural  is  of  course  wanting. 

- Eu  a diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. : ei  sometimes  a diphthong  in  the  Gen. 
and  Dat. 


28 


THIKD  DECLENSIOIS'. 


D.  Pericli  Paridi  Dido,  oni  Orph-ei,  i,  eo 

A.  Periclem,  ea,  en  | ^ Dido,  on^m  Orphea,  eikin 

V.  Pericles,  ^s,  e Pari  Dido  Orpheu 

A.  Pericli*  Paride»  Dido,  on^*  Orpheo* 

1.  Paradigms. — Observe  that  these  paradigms  fluctuate  in  certain 
cases, — (1)  between  the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forms:  lanipMis^  os ; lam- 
pMem^  a ; herdes^  as^ — (2)  between  different  declensions : Pericles,  be- 
tween Dec.  I.,  Fericlerij  Pericle^  Dec.  II.,  Pericti  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III., 
Periclis^  etc. : Orpheus,  between  Dec.  II.,  Orpliei^  Orpheo^  etc.,  and  Dec. 
III.,  Orpheos^  etc. 

2.  Nouns  in  ys  have  Gen.  yoS;  ys,  Acc.  ym,  yn : Othrys^  Othryos^ 
Othrym^  Olliryn. 

3.  The  Vocative  Sing,  drops  s, — (1)  in  nouns  in  eus,  ys  and  in 
proper  names  in  as,  Gen.  ayitis  ; Atlas^  Atla^ — (2)  generally  in  nouns  in 
is  and  sometimes  in  other  words ; Pari. 

4.  Genitive  Plur. — The  ending  on  occurs  in  a few  titles  of  Books : 
Metamorphoses  (title  of  a poem),  Aletamorphoseon. 

5.  Dative  and  Ablative  Plur. — The  ending  si,  before  vowels  sin, 
occurs  in  poetry : TroMes^  Troasin. 

6.  A few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nom.  Acc.  and  Voc.  have  5s  in  the 
Sing,  and  e in  the  Plur. : melos^  mele^  song. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIED  DECLENSION. 

I.  NOXJXS  ENDING  IN  A VoWEL. 

69.  Nouns  in  S : * Genitive  in  atis  : Stem  in  at : 


poema,  poem^  poematis,  poemat. 

70.  Nouns  in  S : Genitive  in  is  : Stem  in  i : 

mare,  sea^  maris,  marl. 

71.  Nouns  in  i : ^ Genitive  in  is  : Stem  in  i : 

sinapi,  mustard.,  sinapis,  sinapi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 


1.  itis, — compounds  of  meli : oxymeli^  oxymelitis^  oxymel. 

2.  Many  nouns  in  i are  indeclinable. 

72.  Nouns  in  5 : Genitive  in  onis  : Stem  in  on  : 

leo,  Uon^  leonis,  leon. 


^ These  are  of  Greek  origin. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


29 


Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  bnis  : — most  national  names  : MacMo^  Macedonis^  Macedonian. 

2.  inisd — Apollo;  /io-mo,  man  ; nemo,  nobody;  to6o,  whirlwind ; and 

nouns  in  do  and  go:  grando^  grandinis^  hail;  vh'go^ 
virginis^  maiden ; except — harpago^  onis ; llgo^  onis ; 
praedo^  onis,  also  comedo^  cudo^  mango^  spddo^  unMo^  udo. 

3.  nis: — c«ro,  carnis  (for  carmis^\  flesh.  See  65,  3,  2). 

4.  enis : — Anio^  Anienis.,  river  Anio ; Nerio,  Nerienis. 

5.  ms : — few  Greek  feminines : Dido,  Didus.  See  68. 

73.  Nouns  in  y " : Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys)  : Stem  in  y : 

misy,  misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 

II.  Nouns  ending  in  a Mute  or  Liquid. 

74.  Nouns  in  c : only  dle^^  aUcis,  pickle  ; Idc^  lactis^ 
milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 : Genitive  in  lis  : Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  solis,  sol. 

1.  Fel,fellis,  gall;  mel,  mellis,  honey. 

2.  Neuters  in  al : Genitive  in  alls  : Stem  in  all : 

animal,  animal,  animalis,  animali. 

76.  Nouns  in  n : Genitive  in  nis  : Stem  in  n : 

paean,  ^ paeanis,  paean, 

fitimen,  stream,  fluminis,  flumen,  i i. 

1.  Nouns  in  en  have  the  variable  radical  vowel — e,  i.  Sec  60,  1,  2). 

2.  There  are  a few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  bnis,  ontis,  St.  in  bn, 
ont : aedon,  aedonis,  nightingale ; Xenophon,  Xenophontis,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r : Genitive  in  ris  : Stem  in  r : 

career,  prison,  carceris,  career. 

I.  Nouns  in  ar : (1)  ar,  G.  aris,  St.  ad ; calcar,  calcaris,  spur ; but  a 
few  have  G.  aris,  St.  ^ ; nectar,  nectaris,  nectar : (2)  ar,  G.  aris,  St.  ari : 

?aWs,  house ; par, paHs,  pair : (3)  Far,  f arris,  corn;  hepdr,  hepjdtis, 
liver. 

II.  Nouns  in  er.  Some  drop  e in  the  Genitive. 

1.  Those  in  ter : paifer,  pa^ns,  father ; except  later,  lateris,  tile;^^cr, 
itineris,  way ; Jupiter,  Jovis,  and  Greek  nouns ; crater,  crateris,  bowl. 

2.  Irnher  and  names  of  months  in  ber:  imher,  imbris,  shower;  8cp- 
' temhh',  Septembris,  September. 


1 Stem  in  6n,  In.  See  60, 1,  2). 

2 Nouns  in  y are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 


30 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


III.  Is  ouns  in  (5r : G.  5ris,  St.  or : pastor^  pastdris^  shepherd ; but  a 

few  have  G.  oris,  St.  or : arbor ^ arboris^  tree ; ae(puor^  sea ; marmor^ 
marble.  But  cor,  cordis^  heart.  ^ 

IV.  Four  in  fir:  G.  oris,  St.  gr;  ebur,  ivory;  femur,  thigh;  yW, 

liver ; robur ^ strength  ; but  femur  has  also  feminis^  and  jecur ^ jednoriSy 
jedneriSy  and^ocmm^.  \ 

78.  Nouns  in  ut  : Genitive  in  itis  : Stem  in  ut,  it  : 

caput,  head^  capitis,  caput,  it. 

III.  Nouns  ending  in  s preceded  by  a Vowel. 

79.  Nouns  in  as  : Genitive  in  atis  : Stem  in  at : 

aetas,  age^  aetatis,  aetat. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  atis : — dndSy  andtisy  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns. 

2.  adis : vaSy  vadiSy  surety ; A.rcdSy  Arcadian,  and  fern.  Greek  nouns  ; * 

lampdSy  lampddisy  torch. 

3.  aris : — maSy  marisy  a male ; — stem,  maSy  marl  See  35. 

4.  asis ; — vdSy  vdsiSy  vessel.^ 

5.  assis : — «s,  assisy  an  as  (a  coin). 

6.  antis : — only  masc.  Greek  nouns  ; adamdSy  aniisy  adamant. 

80.  Nouns  in  es  : Genitive  in  is  : Stem  in  i : " 

nubes,  cloud,  * nubis,  nubi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  edis : — (1)  edis : liereSy  lierediSy  heir;  merceSy  reward. — (2)  edis: 
peSy  pediSy  foot. 

2.  aedis : — praeSy  praedis y surety. 

3.  oris: — CereSy  Cereris^ 

4.  aeris : — aeSy  aeriSy  copper.^ 

5.  etis :-—(!)  etis:  quieSy  rest,  with  compounds,  mquieSy  requieSy  and 

a few  Greek  words  : lebeSy  tapes. — (2)  etis : dbieSy  fir-tree ; 
drieSy  ram ; parieSy  wall. 

6.  essis : — heSy  bessisy  two-thirds. 

81.  Nouns  in  Ss  : Genitive  in  itis  : Stem  in  St,  it  : 

miles,  soldier.^  militis,  milet,  it. 


1 Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ados  for  ddis. 

2 Vds  is  the  only  stem  in  s which  does  not  change  s to  r between  two  vowels 
See  61, 1,  3). 

3 But  see  64,  1. 

4 See  61, 1,  3). 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIEH  DECLENSION. 


31 


Exceptions. — Genitive  in 


1.  etis : — interpres,  interpreter ; seges,  crop  ; teges,  covering. 

2.  idis : — ohses,  hostage ; praeses,  president.  See  57,  2. 

82.  Nouns  in  is  : Genitive  in  is  : St( 


Stem  in  i : 
a\i. 


Exceptions. — Genitive  in 


1.  eriBi—cmis,  cineris,^  ashes;  cucumis,  cucumber;  pulvis,  dust 


vomis,  ploughshare. 


2 idis-— mnw,  cup;  cassis,  helmet;  cuspis,  spear;  lapis,  stone; 

promulsis,  antepast,  and  a few  Greek  ^ words  : as  tyrannis, 
idis,  tyranny.  Sometimes  ihis,  and  tigris. 

3.  inis  '.—pollis  or  pollen,  flour ; sanguis,  blood. 

4.  iris : — glis,  gllris,^  dormouse. 

5*  issis semis,  semissis,  half  an  as : stem,  semissi,  semiss. 

6.  itis : — lls,"^  strife ; Dis,  Quiris,  Samnis. 

83.  Nouns  in  os  : Genitive  in  oris  : Stem  in  6s  . 


mos. 


mo3,  custom,  mons, 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 


I otis : — cos,  coiis,  whetstone ; dos,  dowry ; nepos,  grandson  ; sacer- 


dos, priest ; and  a few  Greek  words. 


2.  6 dis ; — custos,  custodis,  guardian.  See  36. 

3^  5ig ; — a few  masc.  Greek  nouns : heros,  hero ; Minos,  Tros. 

4.  bris : — arhos  or  arhor,  tree. 

5.  ossis : — os,  ossis,  bone : stem,  ossi,  oss. 

6.  bvis : — bos,  bovis,  ox.  See  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  us  : Genitive  in  Sris  or  oris  : Stem  in 
gs  or  os. 

I.  eris  : — Idtus,  lateris,  side : stem,  Idtes.  So  also : dcus,  foedus,  funus, 
genus,  glomus,  munus,  olus,  onus,  ojnis,  pondus,  rudus,  scelus,  sidus,  ulcus, 
vellus,  Venus,  viscus,  vulnus. 

II.  oris : — corpus,  corporis,  body : stem,  coipos.  So  also  decus,  dedecus, 
facinus,  fenus,  frigus,  lepus,  litus,  nhnus,  pectus,  pecus,  penus,  pignus,  ster 
cus,  tempus,  tergus. 


1 Stem  cinis.,  clner  for  clnh  with  variable  vowel  See  28,  85,  and  57,  2. 

2 Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  idos  or  even  ios  for  idis;  Sdldmls  has  Salaminis, 
Simois,  Simoentis. 

3 Stem  glis,  gllri  for  gllsi,  85. 

^ Stem  llti,  lit. 


32 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  uris: — (1)  uris:  crws,  leg;  jiis^  right;  jus^  soup;  miis^  mouse; 

pus  ; rws,  country ; tus  (thus),  incense ; tellus^  earth. 
— (2)  uris  : Ligus^  Liguris^  Ligurian.  See  61. 

2.  utis  : — -juve7itus^  youth ; sdlus^  safety ; senectus^  old  age ; servitus^ 

servitude;  virtue.  See  86. 

3.  udis: — (1)  udis:  wicws,  anvil ; marsh ; suhscuSj  dovetail. — 

(2)  udis : pecds^  pecudis^  a head  of  cattle. 

4.  audis  :—fraus^  fraudis^  fraud  ; laus^  praise.  See  65,  2,  foot-note. 

5.  uis  : — grus^  griiiSj  crane  ; sws,  swine. 

6.  untis : — a few  Greek  names  of  places : Trapezus^  untls. 

7.  bdis  : — Greek  compounds  in  pus : tripus^  tripodis^  tripod. 

8.  eos  : — Greek  nouns  in  eus^  wLen  of  this  declension.  See  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  ys  : ' Gen.  in  yiSj  yos,  ys  : Stem  in  y : 

Othrjs,  Othryos,  Othry. 


IV.  Nouns  ending  in  preceded  by  a Consonant. 


83.  Nouns  in  bs  : Genitive  in  bis  : 

urbs,  city^  urbis, 

87.  Nouns  in  ms  : Genitive  in  mis 

hiems,  winter^  hiemis, 

88.  Nouns  in  eps  : Genitive  in  ipis  : 

princeps,  prince^  principis. 


Stem  in  bi  : ^ 
urbi. 

Stem  in  m : 
hiem. 

Stem  in  gp,  ip. 
princep,  ip. 


1.  But  auceps^  aucupis^  fowler. 

2.  Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel  unchanged  : merops^  mero- 
pis^ bee-eater. 

8.  Gryps^  grypMs^  griffin. 

89.  Nouns  in  Is  : Genitive  in  Itis  : Stem  Iti  : 

puls,  hroth^  pultis,  pulti. 

90.  Nouns  in  ns  : Genitive  in  ntis  : Stem  in  nti:^ 

mens,  mind^  mentis,  menti. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

dis ; — frous,  frondis^  leaf ; glans^  acorn  ; juglans^  walnut.  See  65,  2. 


^ These  are  of  Greek  orij^in;  a few  of  them  have  ydis:  chldmys^  chlamydis^  cloak. 
3 Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  b. 
s Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  i. 


BYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSIO^^. 


S3 


91.  Nouns  in  ra  : Genitive  in  rtis  : Stem  in  rti  ; 

ars,  art.  artis,  arti. 

V.  Nouns  ending  in  x. 

92.  Nouns  in  ax  : Genitive  in  Scis  : Stem  in  ac  : 

pax,  ^5eace,  pacis,  pac. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  acis  \—fax,  facts,  torch  ; and  a few  Greek  nouns. 

2.  actis  : — a few  Greek  names  of  men : Astyanax. 

93.  Nouns  in  eiL  : Genitive  in  icis  : Stem  in  ic,  Sc  : 

judex,  Judje,  judicis,  judic,  ec. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  ecis: — (1)  ecis : dlex,  pickle;  vervex,  wether. — (2)  eois:  ncx, 

murder ; fentsex,  mower. 

2.  aecis  : — faex,  faecis,  lees. 

3.  egis : — (1)  egis : lex,  law ; rex,  king,  and  their  compounds.  (2) 

egis : grex,  flock ; aquilex,  water-inspector. 

4.  ectilis : — supellex,  supellectilis,  furniture.' 

5.  igis : — remex,  remigis,  rower.  See  28,  2,  1). 

6.  is  : — senex,  senis,  old  man.  See  66,  1. 

94.  Nouns  in  ix  : Genitive  in  icis  : stem  in  ic  : 

radix,  root^  radicis,  radio. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  icis  : — appendix,  appendix ; calix,  cup  ; fornix,  arch  ; pix,  pitch  ; 

sdlix,  willow,  and  a few  others. 

2.  igis:-s^~,  screech-owl;  and  a few  Gallic  names:  Dumnorix, 

Orgetorix. 

3.  ivis  : — nix,  ravis,  snow.  See  66. 

95.  Nouns  in  OX  : only  vods.,  voice  ; nox.,  7ioctis^ 

night.  . V • 

There  are  also  a few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  6cis  or  6gis : 

Cappadox,  Cappadocis;  Allohrox,  Allohrogis. 

96.  Nouns  in  ux  : Genitive  in  ucis  : Stem  in  uc  : 

dux,  leader.^  ' dhcis,  diic. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 
1.  ucis: — lux,  lucis,  light;  Pollux. 


1 Stem,  sv.pellec,  siipellectil. 


34 


0ENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


2.  aucis  : — -faux  (def.)  faucis^  tliroat. 

3.  ugis: — (1)  ugis:  frux^  frugis^  fruit. — (2)  ugis:  conjux^ 

spouse. 

97.  Nouns  in  yx  : from  the  Greek,  variously  declrfc 
Eryx^  Erycis^  Eryx  ; bombyx^  bombycis^  silkworm  ; Sb 
Stygis^  Styx  ; coccyx^  coccygis^  cuckoo  ; onyx^  ony^ 
onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  x preceded  by  a consonant : 

t ^ Genitive  in  cis  : Stem  in  cS^: 

arx,  citadel^  arcis,  arci. 

V _ Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

gis  : — A few  Greek  nouns : phalanx^  phalangis^  phalanx. 

c::5 

GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

^ I 99.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  in 

o,  or,  os,  er,  and  es  increasing  in  the  genitive^ 
f::  are  masculine  : sermo,  discourse  ; dolor,  pain  ; mbs,  cus- 

^ tom  ; agger,  mound  ; pes,  genitive  pedis,  foot.  ^ 

100.  Exceptions  in  O. — Feminine^  viz, : - 

f 1.  Nouns  in  o,  Gen.  inis^  excepDcarSo,  ordo^  turbo,  masc.,  cupido  and 
' margo,  masc.  or  fern. 

Sv  2.  Caro,  flesh,  and  the  Greek  Argo,  echo,  an  echo. 

V-  Most  abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  io  : ratio,  reason ; condo,  an 
assembly. 

101.  Exceptions  in  OR:  ^ 

1.  Feminine: — arbor,  tree. 

2.  Neuter : — ador,  spelt ; aequor,  sea ; cor,  heart ; marmor,  marble. 

1 02.  Exceptions  in  OS : 

1.  Feminine: — arbos,  tree;  cos,  whetstone;  dos,  dowry;  eos,  dawn. 

2.  Neuter : — 6s,  mouth ; 6s,  bone ; and  a few  Greek  words : chaos. 

103.  Exceptions  in  ER: 

1.  Feminine: — linter,  boat  (sometimes  masc.). 

2.  Neuter : — (1)  cadaver,  corpse ; iter,  way ; tuber,  tumor  ; uber,  udder ; 
ver,  spring ; verber,  scourge, — (2)  botanical  names  in  er,  Gen. 
eris : acer,  maple-tree ; papaver,  poppy. 


1 That  is,  having  more  syllables  in  the  genitive  than  in  the  nominative. 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


35 


104,  Exceptions  in  ES: 

1.  Feminine: — compes^  fetter;  merces^  reward;  merges ^ sheaf; 

rest  (with  its  compounds) ; seges^  crop  ; teges^  mat ; sometimes 
ales^  bird,  and  gimdrujpes^  quadruped 

2.  Neuter: — aes^  copper. 


n.  105.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  in 

\)  as,  is,  ys,  x,  es  not  increasing  in  the  genitive^  and  ^pre^ 


ceded  by  a consonant^ 

are  feminine  : aetds^  age  ; navis ^ ship  ; chlamys^  cloak  ; 
pax^  peace  ; nuhes^  cloud ; urhs^  city. 


106.  Exceptions  in  AS:  y 

: 1.  Masculine: — «5,  an  as  (a  coin),  vds^  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as, 


G.  antis. 

2.  Neuter : — vds^  vessel,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  G.  atis. 

^ 107.  Exceptions  in  IS  and  YS. — Masculine: 

1.  Nouns  in  alis,  ollis,  cis,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis : natalis,  birthday ; 

ignis,  fire  ; sanguis,  blood.  But  a few  of  these  are  occasion- 
^ ally  feminine : cams,  amnis,  cmis,  finis,  anguis,  torquis. 

2.  Axis,  axle ; £>uris,  plough-tail ; callis  (Q,  path ; ^ ensis,  sword ; lapis, 

stone ; mensis,  month ; orhis,  circle ; postis,  post ; pulvis,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier ; torris,  brand ; vectis,  lever, ^ and  a few  others. 

3.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys : Othrgs. 

V 108.  Exceptions  in  X. — Masculine: 

1.  Greek  masculines : corax,  raven  ; thorax,  cuirass. 

2.  Nouns  in  ex  and  unx ; except  the  feminines : faex,  forfex,  lex, 

nex,  [prex,)  supellex. 

3.  Calix,  cup ; fornix,  arch ; phoenix,  phoenix ; tradux,  vine-layer,  and 
a ^ew^ouns  in  yx. 

,_4?'^8i^etimes : calx,  heel ; calx,  lime ; hjnx,  a lynx. 

*^109.  Exceptions  in  ES: 

/1.  Alasculine: — dcinaces,  cimeter;  sometimes  palumbes,  dove;  and 
vepres,  thorn-bush. 

, 2.  Neuter: — a few  Greek  nouns:  cUcoethes,  desire;  hipp(^mdnes,h\])- 

^ofoane. 

10.  Exceptions  in  S preceded  by  a Consonant. — Masculine: 

tooth  ; fons,  fountain  ; mons,  mountain  ; pons,  bridge ; gener- 


* Sometimes  feminine. 

2 For  nouns  in  is  masculine  by  signification,  see  42, 1. 


3 


FOtTETH  DECLFNSION’. 


2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  vrith  a masa 
noun  understood:  oriens  (sol),  east;,  confluens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence; (raster)^  trident qiuidrans  quarter. 

^ 3.  ChdhjbSy  steel;  hydrops^  dropsy,  and  a few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes : forceps^  forceps ; serpens^  serpent ; stirps^  stock.  Ar^  p-. 
, mans,  animaL  is  masc.,  fern,,  or  neuter.  ^ ' i 

Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  in 
a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ur,  and  us, 

are  neuter  : poema^  poem  ; mare^  sea  ; laCy  milk  ; dmmdly  ^ . 

animal ; carmlriy  song  ; cdpiXt^  head  ^ corpiiSy  body.  > • ' 

A 

112.  Exceptions  in  I*  and  AR: — Masculine: 

Mugil^  mullet ; sal^^  salt ; sol^  sun ; lavy  hearth  ; sdldr^  trout, 

113.  Exceptions  in  N t 

1.  Alascudine : — pecten^  comb ; rm^  kidney ; spleen ; and  Greek  \ 

mascuhnes  in  an,  en,  in,  on : paean^  paean ; cdnon^  rule.  \J 

2.  Feminine : — aedon^  nightingale ; alcyon  (halcyon),,  kingfisher ; icon^ 

image ; sindon^  muslin. 

114.  Exceptions  in  XJR. — Mascidine  : 

Furfur^  bran ; turtur^  turtle-dove ; vultur ^ vulture.  ^ 

115.  Exceptions  in  USi 

1.  Masculine : — lepus^  hare,  mus^  mouse ; and  Greek  nouns  in  pus» 

2.  Feminine : — -tellus^  earth  ; fraus,  fraud ; laus^^  praise ; and  nouns  i® 

"^^us," Gen.  utis  or  u^ : virtue; 


FOURTH  DECLENSION:  U NOUNS. 
116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in^^  4/^11 


uB^mctsculine  ; ti, — muter. 


They  are  declined  as  folio wsj 


/\ 


Fructus,  fruit. 

Cornu, 

, horn. 

SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

N.  fructiis 

cornH. 

US 

U 

Q,  fructfis 

cornia» 

US 

' us 

J).  fruct-Bii 

cornllL 

ul 

u 

A.  fructiiiML 

corn-M. 

um  u 

V.  fruct&s 

corntt 

lis 

u 

A.  fructw 

cornw 

u 

u 

/ 

/ 


FOURTH  DECLEN^SIOi^’. 


37 


',iV.  fructfts 
, G.  fructiiiim 
D.  fructil>&s 
A.  fructU-S 
V.  fructiis 
fructil>&s. 


PLURAL. 

cornii.lt 

corniiiiiii 

corniliiks 

cornua 

cornua 

corni'toiis. 


us 

uiim 

ibus  (ubiis) 

us 

us 


ua 

uum 

ibus  (ubus) 

ua 

ua 


ibus  (ubiis).  ibiis  (ubiis). 


■ ^ 1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  the  stem  ends  in  u: 
^ fructu^  cornu. 

2.  Case-Endings. — The  case-endings  here  given  contain  the  stem-end- 
ing u,  weakened  to  % in  xhus.^  but  retained  in  uhu8.  See  30. 

117.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur : 

1.  Ubus  for  used  regularly  in  the  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur.  of 
Acus^  needle;  arcus^  bow;  artus,  joiiit  i lacus,  lake;  partus,  birth; 

p^cu,  cattle;  quercus,  oak;  specus,  den;  trihus,  ivihe  \ veru,  spit:  occa- 
f sionally  in  a few  other  words,  as  portus,  sinus,  and  tonWus. 

$ 2.  Uis,  the  uncontracted  form  for  us,  in  the  Gen. : fructuis  for  fructus. 
I 3.  U for ^i,  in  the  Dat.  by  contraction : equitatu  for  equitatui,  cavalry. 

> 118.  Exceptions  in  Gender. 

. ' ~nilllli  'ill  ig  -1— iHI*^ 

Feminine: — (1)  acus,  needle;  colus,  distaff;  domus,  house;  manus, 
' hand ; porticus,  portico  ; trihus,  tribe, — (2)  t^i^ides ; Quin- 

quatrus, feast  of  Minerva ; generallyi'jo^^s,  st|^,  when  of 
this  deck  ; rarely  specus,  de9i^(3)  se^2,  II.  \,^ 

2.  Neuter : — secus  (sexus\  sex ; rarely,^^^^*ws,  ^n. 

119.  Second  and  Fourth  DECLENpoi^^Some  nouns  are  partly 
of  the  fourth  declension  and  pa^^Vof  the' Wond. 

1.  Domus,  F.,  house,  has  aJ&^ocm^Qj(bi*m  domi,  at  home,  and  is  other- 
J\yise^  declined  as  follows } -J 


■ m 
■M 


SINGULAR. 

N.  domiis 
G.  domus 
D.  domui  (domo) 
A.  domum 
V.  domus 
A.  domo  (domu) 


PLURAL. 

domus 

domuum,  domo  rum 
domibus 
domos,  domus 
domus 
domibus. 


j 


2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  us,  as  cupressus,  ficus,  laurus,  pinus, 
though  generally  of  Deck  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth 
r which  end  in  us  and  u : N.  laurus,  G.  laurus,  D.  lauro,  A.  laurum,  V . 

: laurus.,  A.  lauru.,  &c.  So  also  colus,  distaff. 


38 


FIFTH  DECLENSION. 


3.  A few  nouns,  especially  senatus  and  tumultus^  though  regularly  of 
Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  genitive  ending  i of  the  second:  senati^ 
iumulti. 


FIFTH  DECLEHSIOH:  B HOUHS. 

c\r\p 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end^in 
mne^  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


mi- 


Dies,  day. 

^ JJ 

Res,  thing, 

SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

AplK  dies 

res 

es 

G.  diei 

rel 

el 

D.  di^i 

rM 

ei 

A.  di^Mi 

r^iM 

em 

V.  dies 

res 

es 

A.  die 

re 

PLURAL. 

e 

K.  dies 

res 

es 

G.  dierikiii 

reriaiM 

eriim 

D.  diel>iis 

r^ljils 

ebils 

A.  dies 

res 

es 

V.  dies 

res 

es 

A.  diel^iis. 

rel^iis. 

ebiis. 

L.  Stem. — The  stem 

of  nouns  of  the 

Fifth  Declension  ends  in 

re. 

' 2.  Case-Endings.-— The  case-endings  here  given  contain  the  stem- 

ending e,  which  appears  in  all  the  cases.  It  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  ending 
) cl,  when  preceded  by  a consonant,  and  (2)  in  the  ending  em. 

3.  Irregular  Endings: — e or  I for  ei  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat. : acie  for 
aciei  ; pernicii  for  perniciei. 

X 4-  Defective.— Nouns  of  this  declension,  except  dies  and  res,  want  the 
Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur.,  and  many  admit  no  plural  whatever. 

K121.  Exceptions  in  Gender.— Masculine  : Dies,  day,  and 
mid-day,  though  dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular. 

1 22.  The  Five  Declensions,  which  are  only  varieties  of  one 
general  system  of  inflection,  have  been  produced  hy  the  union  of 
i the  different  final  letters  of  the  stem  with  the  following : 


r..< 


Mmc.  and  Fern, 
Nom.  s — 

Gen.  is, 

Dat.  I 
Acc.  m,  em^ 
Voc.  s — 

Ahl.  d,  ed  ^ 


Nom.  es, 

\Gen.  um,  rum^ 
jM.  bus,  ibus,  Is^ 
Acc.  ms,  ems^ 
es,  1 

Abl.  bus,  ibus,  Is'^. 


123 

stems  so 


um,  rum 
bus,  ibus.  Is 

a 

a 

bus,  ibus.  Is. 

The  manner  in  which  these  ehdings  unite  with  the  different 
as  to  produce  the  five  declensions  may  be  seen  in  the  following 

COMfAEATIYE  YiEW  OF  DECLENSIONS. 


I.  1 

II.  1 

III.  1 

lY.  1 

1 

Mensa.  1 

Servo.  1 Eeg.  I 

SINGULAR. 

Fructu. 

1 Ke. 

j mensa- 

servo-s 

reg-s 

fructn-s 

re-s 

( mensa 

servus 

rex 

fructus 

res 

( mensa-i 

servo-i 

reg-is 

fructn-is 

re-i 

( mensae 

servi 

regis 

fructus 

rel 

( mensa-i 

servo-i 

reg-i 

fructu-i 

re-i 

\ mensae 

servo 

regl 

fructui 

rel 

( mensa-m 

servo-m 

reg-em 

fruciu-m 

re-m 

(mensam 

servum 

reg-em 

fructum 

rem 

( mensa- 

servo- 

reg-s 

fructu-s 

re-s 

\ mens 3, 

serve  ® 

rex 

fructus 

res 

( mensa-d 

servo-d 

reg-ed 

fructu-d 

re-d 

1 mensa 

servo 

rege 

fructu 

re 

^ 1 The  endings  I and  rwn  are  used  with  stems  in  a^  o,  and  e / is  and  um  with  other 
stems. 

; 2 The  endings  m and  ms  are  used  with  vowel  stems,  em  and  ems  (with  connecting 

‘ vowel  e)  with  consonant  stems.  The  plural  endings  ms  and  ems  are  formed  by 
. adding  s to  the  singular.  is  then  dropped,  and  the  preceding  vowel  is  lengthened  in 
; compensation;  hence  as,  os,  es,  etc.  See  27. 

3 The  ending  d was  originally  used  with  vowel  stems,  and  ed  (with  connecting 
vowel  e)  with  consonant  stems.  D was  afterwards  dropped,  and  the  preceding  vowel, 
if  short,  was  lengthened,  except  e in  Dec.  III.,  which  was  only  a connecting  vowel. 

^ The  endings  I and  is  are  used  with  stems  in  a and  o ,*  es  with  other  stems;  bus 
■ with  stems  in  u and  e;  \hus  (with  connecting  vowel  i)  with  consonant  stems. 

® Nouns  in  us  of  Dec.  II.  change  the  stem- vowel  o into  e. 


40 


GENEEAL  TABLE  OF  GEOTEK, 


iV. 


’■) 

M 

'■i 


G. 

D. 

A. 

V. 


I mensa-t 
I mensae 
mensa-rum 
mensarum 
mensa-is 
mensis 
mensa-ms 
mensas 
mensa-i 
mensae 
mensa-is 
mensis. 


servo-i 

reg-es 

fructu-es 

re-et 

servi 

reges 

fructus 

res 

servo-rum 

reg-um 

fructu-um 

re-rum 

servorum 

regum 

fructuiim 

rerilm 

servo-is 

reg-ibus 

fructu-bus 

re-bus 

servTs 

regibiis 

fructibus 

rebus 

servo-ms 

reg-ems 

fructu-ms 

re-ms 

servos 

reges 

fructus 

res 

servo-i 

reg-es 

fructu-es 

re-es 

servi 

reges 

fructus 

res 

servo-is 

reg-ibus 

fructu-bus 

re-bus 

servis. 

regibiis. 

fructibus. 

rebiis. 

124.  Geneeal  Table  of  Gendee. 
\ I.  Gender  independent  of  ending.^ 
djclensions. 


Common  to  all 


Masculine. 

Names  of  Males,  of 
Eivers,  Winds,  and 
Months. 


Feminine. 

Names  of  Females,  of 
Countries,  Towns, 
Islands,  and  Trees. 


Neuter. 

Indeclinable  Nouns, 
and  Words  and 
Clauses  used  as  In- 
declinable JSfouns. 


II.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  Ending.’* 


Masculine.  I 

aSj  es.  1 

er,  ir,  uS;  os.  ! 

or,  os,  er,  es  in- 
creasing in  the  geni- 
tive. 


Declension  I. 
Feminine. 

a,  e. 

Declension  II. 


I 


Neuter. 


um,  on. 


Declension  III. 
as,  is,  ys,  s,  es  not 

increasing  in  the  gen- 
itive.^ s preceded  by  a 
consonant. 

Declension  TV. 

Declension  Y. 
es. 


a,  e,  i,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t, 
ar,  ur,  us. 


u. 


' For  exceptions,  see  43. 

2 For  exceptions,  see  under  the  several  declensions. 


COMPOUND  NOUNS. 


COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

125»  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declen- 


^ Sion.  But 

i 1,  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined  : r£spubtica  = 

: • publica^  republic,  the  public  thing ; jusjurandum  = jus  jurandum^  oath. 
^ 2.  If  a nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 

? declined : paterfamilias  — paler  Jamilias  (49,  1),  or  pater  familiae^  the 
father  of  a family. 


\ 


126.  Paradigms. 


N.  respublica 
G.  relpublicae 
D.  relpublicae 
A,  rempublicam 
V.  respublica 
A,  republics 


SINGULAR. 

jusjurandum 

jurisjurandi 

jurijurando 

jusjurandum 

jusjurandum 

jurejurando 


paterfamilias 
patrisfamilias 
patrlfamilias 
patremfamilias 
paterfamilias 
\ patrefamilias 


PLURAL, 


IT.  respublicae 
>G.  rerumpublicarum 
D.  rebuspublicis 
A,  respublicas 
V.  respublicae 
A.  rebuspublicis. 


jurajuranda 


jurajuranda 

jurajuranda 


patresfamilias 

patrumfamilias 

patribusfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patribusfamilias. 


")  1.  The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and 

perhaps  more  correctly  written  separately : res  publica  ; pater  familias  or 
> familiae. 

2.  Paterfamilias  sometimes  has  familiarum  \v^  the  plural:  patresfami- 
' Uarum. 


lEREGULAE  NOUNS, 

127.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

IT.  Defective  Nouns  want  certain  parts. 

III.  Heteeoclites  {heteroclita  are  partly  of  one  declension 
and  partly  of  another. 

lY.  Heterogeneous  Nouns  {hUerbgenea'^)  are  partly  of  one 
gender  and  partly  of  another. 


1 From  erepo?,  another^  and  xAto-t?,  infleetion..,  i.  e.,  of  different  declensions, 
^ From  eVe^o?j  another^  and  yivos,  gender^  i.  e.,  of  different  gcndera. 


42 


IKREGl>LAR  NOUNS^. 


I.  Indeclinable  Kouns. 

1 28.  The  Latin  lias  but  few  indeclinable  nouns : 

1.  right;  wrong;  equality;  mane,  morning;  nilixl^ 

nothing ; pondo^  pound ; secus^  sex, 

2.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  6,,  e,  dpM^  hltd^  etc. 

S.  Foreign  words  : Jdc6b^  lliharl ; though  these  are  often  declined. 


II.  Defective  ITounSw 

129.  ISTouns  may  be  defective  in  Number^  in  Ca^e^  or  in  both 
Number  and  Case, 

ISO.  Pleeae  wanting, — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification  want  the  plural : Edma^  Rome ; justUia^  justice ; 
auTum^  gold. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are : 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places : Cicero^  Boma. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns : fides^  faith ; justiiia^  justice. 

3)  Names  of  materials : aurum,,  gold ; feiTum,,  iron. 

4)  A few  others:  meridies,,  midday;  specimen,,  example;  supellex,  furni- 
ture ; ver,  spring ; vespera,  evening,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate  families,  classes ; names 
of  materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ; and 
abstract  nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  hinds,  of  the  quality ; Scipiones,^ 
the  Scipios ; aera,  vessels  of  copper ; avaritiae,  instances  of  avarice ; bdia, 
hatreds. 

In  the  poets,  the  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

131.  SiNGTTLAR  WANTING. — ^Maiiy  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1 . The  most  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes:  majores,  fore- 
fathers ; posteri,  descendants ; gemini,  twins ; liberi,  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities:  Athenae,  Athens;  Th'ebae,  Thebes;  Delphi, 
Delphi. 

3)  Many  names  of  festivals : Bacchanalia,  Olympia,  Saturnalia, 

4)  Arma,  arms  ; divitiae,  richer ; exsequiae,  funeral  rites ; exuviae,  spoils; 
Idus,  ides;  indutiae,  truce;  insidiae,  ambuscade;  manes,  shades  of  the 
dead ; minae,  threats ; moenia,  walls ; munia,  duties ; nuptiae,  nuptials ; 
reliquiae,  remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be 
denoted  by  unus  ex  with  the  plural : unus  ex  liberis,  one  of  the  children,  or 
a child. 

8.  The  plural  in  names  of  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts 
of  the  city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  w'ere  often  made  up  of  separate 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 


43 


villages.  So  in  tlie  names  of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various 
games  and  exercises  which  together  constituted  the  festival. 

132.  Pltjeal  with  Change  of  Meaning. — Some  nouns  have 
one  signification  in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.  Thus : 


SINGULAR. 

Aedes,  temple  ; 

Auxilium,  help  / 

Career,  prison^  harrier  ; 

Castrum,  castle^  hut  / 

Comitium,  name  of  a part  of  the 
Roman  forum  ; 

Copia,  plenty,  force  ; 

Facultas,  ability  ; 

Finis,  end  ; 

Fortuna,  fortune  ; 

Gratia,  gratitude^  favor  ; 

Ilortus,  garden  ; 
Impedimentum,  hindrance  ; 

Littera,  letter  of  alphabet ; 

Ludus,  sport ; 

Mos,  custom  ; 

Natalis  (dies),  birth-day  ; 
Opera,  work,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

Eostrum,  beak  of  ship  / 


Sal,  salt ; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  (1)  temples,  (2)  a house.^ 
auxilia,  auxiliaries, 
carceres,  barriers  of  a race-course. 
castra,  camp. 

comitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  co- 
mitium. 

copiae,  (1)  stores,  (2)  troops. 
facultates,  wealth,  means. 
fines,  borders,  territory. 
fortunae,  possessions,  wealth. 
gratiae,  thanks. 

horti,  (1)  gardens,  {f)  pleasure-grounds. 
impedimenta,  (1)  hindrances,  (2)  bag- 
gage. 

litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epis- 
tle, writing,  letters,  literature. 
ludi,  iX)  plays,  (f),  public  spectacle. 
mores,  manners,  character. 
natales,  pedigree,  parentage. 
operae,  workmen. 
partes,  (l)^ar255,  (2)  a party. 
rostra,  (1)  beaks,  (2)  the  rostra  or 
tribune  in  Rome  (adorned  with 
beaks). 

sales,  witty  sayings. 


133.  Defective  in  Case. — Some  nouns  are  defective  in  case. 
Thus : 

1.  In  the  Norn.,  Dat.,  and  Yoc.  Sing.  : (Ops),  opis,  help  ; (vix  or  vicis), 
vicis,  change. 

2.  In  the  Nom.  and  Yoc.  Sing. : (Daps),  dapis,/oo(/;  (ditio),  ditionis, 
sway  ; (frux),  frugis,  fruit ; (internecio),  internecionis,  destruction  ; (pol- 
iis), pollinis,  flour. 

3.  In  the  Gen.,  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. : most  nouns  of  the  fifth  declen- 
sion. See  120,  4. 

So  also  many  neuters : far,  fel,  mel,  pus,  rus,  tus  ; especially  Greek 
neuters  in  os,  which  want  these  cases  in  the  singular  also : ^pos,  melos. 


1 Aedes  and  some  other  words  in  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural 
two  significations,  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  singular,  and  the  other  distinct 
from  it. 


44 


HETEROCLITES. 


4.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. : many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  mono- 
syllables : nex^  pax^  pix  ; cor^  cos^  ros  ; sdl^  sol^  lux. 

134.  Number  and  Case. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  num- 
ber and  certain  cases  of  the  other : chance,  has  only  fors 

and  forte;  lues.,  pestilence,  has  lues.,  luem.,  lue.  Many  verbal 
nouns  in  u have  only  the  ablative  singular : fmu.,  by  order ; man- 
datu., by  command ; rogatu.,  by  request. 

Ill,  Hetesoclites. 

135.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  IV.  are  a few  nouns  in  us. 
See  119. 

130.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  III.  are 

1.  Jugerum.,  an  acre ; generally  of  the  second  Dccl.  in  the  Sing.,  and 

of  the  third  in  the  Plur. : jugh^um.,  jugeri  ; plural,  jugerum.,  jug erihus. 

2.  FdSj  a vessel;  of  the  third  Decl.,  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in 
the  Plur. : ras,  vdsis  ; plural,  vdsa.,  vasorum. 

3.  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia : Bacclidndlia,  Sdturndlia  ; which 
are  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  sometimes  form  the  Gen.  Plur.  in 
drum  of  the  second.  Anclle.,  a shield,  and  a few  other  words  have  the  same 
peculiarity. 

137.  Of  Declensions  III.  and  Y.  are 

1.  Bequies^  rest;  v/hich  is  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  also  takes 
the  forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Fdmes^  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Deck,  except  in  the  ablative, 
fame.,  of  the  fifth  (not famie.,  of  the  third). 

1 38.  Forms  in  ia  and  ies. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Decl.  I.,  and  one  in  ies  of  Decl.  Y. : luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury; materia,  materies,  material. 

v/  139.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have 
one  form  in  us  of  Decl.  lY.,  and  one  in  um  of  Decl.  II. : conatus,  conatum, 
an  attempt ; eventus,  eventum,  event. 

s/ 1 40.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry : juventus  (utis),  youth ; poetic,  juventa  (ae) : senectus 
(utis),  old  age;  poetic,  senecta  (ae):  paupertas  (atis),  poverty;  poetic, 
pauperies  (ei). 

lY.  Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

141.  Masculine  and  Neuter. — Some  take  in  the 

plural  an  additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

e/oc-ws,  m.,  jest;  plural m.,/om,  n. 

Locus,  m.,  place ; “ loci,  m.,  topics,  loca,  n.,  places. 


ABJECTITES. 


45 


142.  Feminij^e  and  ISTeutee. — '^omQ  feminines  take  in  tlie 
plural  an  additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender; 

€arhdsus,  t,  linen;  plural  carhasi,  f.,  carbasa,  n, 

Margarita,  f.,  pearl;  ‘‘  margaritae,  h,  margarita,  m 

Ostrea,  f.,  oyster;  “ ostreae,  f.,  ostrm,  n. 

143.  ISTeutee  and  Masculine  oe  Feminine, — Some  neuters 
take  in  the  plural  a different  gender.  Thus; 

1-.  Some  neuters  become  masculine  in  the  plural; 

Oaelam,  n.,  heaven ; plural  caeli,  m. 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  masculine  in  the  plural,  but  some- 
times remain  neuter  ^ 

Frenum,  n.,  bridle ; plural  frenl,  m.,  frena,  n, 

Bastrum,  n.,  rake ; “ rastri,  m.,  rastra,  n. 

3.  Some  neuters  become  feminine  in  the  plural : 

Ej^ulum,  n.,  feast ; plural  ejgulae,  f. 

144.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  us  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter : clipeus,  clipeum, 
shield ; commentarius,  commentarium,  commentary. 

J45^  Heterogeneous  Heteroclites. — Some  heteroclites  are  also 
heterogeneous ; conatus  (us),  conatum  (i),  effort ; menda  (ae),  mendum  (i)., 
fault. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

‘'""I  1 43.  The  adjective  is  that  part  of  speech  which  is  used 

to  qualify  nouns  : bonus,  good  : magnus,  great. 

\ The  form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  in  part  upon  the  gender  of 
1 the  noun  which  it  qualifies : bonus  puer,  a good  boy ; bona  puella,  a good 
X girl ; bonum  tectum,  a good  bouse.  Thus  bonus  is  the  form  of  the  adjective 
when  used  with  masculine  nouns,  bona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with 
neuter. 

147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
the  third  declension. 


46 


ADJECTIVES, 


First  and  Second  Declensions  : A and  O Stems, 


148. 

Bonus,  good. 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Nuur, 

iVbm.  bontts 

bonli 

bonum 

Gen.  boni 

bonae 

boni 

Dat.  bono 

bonae 

bono 

Acc.  boniim 

bonaiM. 

boniim 

Voc.  bon^ 

bon^ 

bonitm 

Ahl.  bono 

bona 

bono; 

FLURAL. 

iVbm.  bonS 

• bonae 

bonsi 

Gen.  bonoriim 

bonarum 

bonoriim 

Dat.  bonis 

bonis 

borils 

Acc.  bonos 

bonas 

bonli 

Voc.  bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Ahl.  bonis 

bonis 

bonis. 

1.  Boots  is  declined  in  tlie  Masc.  like  servus  of  Deck  II,  (51),  in  the 
Bern,  like  mensa  of  Deck  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Neut.  like  templum  of  Deck  IL 
(51).  The  stems-are  hono  in  the  Masc,  and  Neut,,  and  hbna  in  the  Fern, 

149.  Liber, /*^66, 


SINGULAR. 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

I^om. 

Uber 

liberi 

Ilberilm 

*- 

Gen. 

liberi 

liberae 

liberi 

Dat. 

libero 

liberae 

libero 

Acc. 

liberum 

liberam 

liberiim 

' 0 

Voc. 

liber 

libera 

liberiim 

Ahl. 

libero 

libera 

libero ; 

V' 

PLURAL. 

I^om. 

liberi 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

liberorum 

liberarum 

liberorttm 

Dat. 

liberis 

liberis 

liberis 

Acc. 

liberos 

liberas 

libera 

Voc. 

liberi 

libSrae 

libera 

Ahl. 

liberis 

liberis 

liberis. 

ADJECTIVES. 


47 


1.  Liber  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  puer  (51),  and  in  the  Fern,  and 
\ Kent,  like  lonus. 


•v 


150.  Aeger,  sick. 


SINGULAR, 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fem. 

aegra 

aegrae 

aegrae 

aegraia 


aegriim 


Nom,  aeger 
Gen,  aegri 
Bat,  aegro 


aegri 

aegro 


aegraisi 
aegraiM. 
aegro ; 


Acc,  aegriim 


- aegr^ 


Vbc,  aeger 

y4  n eo-rtfft 


aeg«ra 


aegris 

aegra 

aegra 

aegris. 


Acc,  aegros 
Voc.  aegri , 
Adi.  aegris 


aegrae 

aegris 


1.  Aeger  is  ^declined  in  the  Masc.  like  ag'cr  (51)  and  in  the  Fcm.  and 
Kent,  like  bonus, 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger.,  but  the  following  in  er 
and  ur  are  declined  like  liber  : 

")  Asper.,  rough;  lacer.,  tom;  miser.,  wretched;  prosper^  prosperous; 
r,  tender ; but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  and  dexter.,  right,  sometimes 
ins  it : dexter.,  dextera  or  dextra. 


'2)  Satur^  sated ; satur,  satura.,  saturum. 


/ 3)  Compounds  in  fer  and  ger : mortifer.,  deadly ; dliger.,  w'inged. 

151,  Irregdlaeities. — These  nine  adjectives  have  in 
the  singular  lus  in  the  genitive  and  i in  the  dative  : 

Alius.,  a,  ud.,  another ; nullus.,  «,  wm,  no  one ; solus.,  alone ; totus ^ 
whole;  ullus.,  any;  unus.,  one;  alter.,  4erd,  4erum.,  the  other;  uier,  4ra., 
4rum.,  which  (of  two) ; neuter.,  4ra,  4rum.,  neither.^ 

1.  The  Regular  Forms  occasionally  occur  in  some  of  these  adjectives. 

2.  I in  ius  is  sometimes  short ; generally  so  in  alterius, 

3.  Alius  contracts  the  genitive  aliius  into  dllus, 

4.  Like  iiter  are  declined  its  compounds : uterque^  uterms^  uterlibet.,  uter- 
cunque, In  alteruter  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  as  alterius  utrlus  ^ 
and  sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  alterutrius. 


1 For  the  Declension  in  full  see  unus,  1T5. 


48 


Third  Deglensiois^  : Consonant  and  I Stems. 

152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  nominative  singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have  two  forms — the  masculine  and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  one  form— the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  Adjectives  oe  Three  Endings  in  this  declen- 
sion have  the  stem  in  ij  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Acer,  sharp, 

SINGULAR. 


Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

acer 

iicris 

acre 

G.  acris 

acris 

acris 

D.  acrl 

acrl 

acri 

A,  acr^m 

acreiBi 

acr^ 

V.  acer 

acris 

acr^ 

A.  acri 

acrl 

acri ; 

PLURAL. 

N.  acres 

acres 

acria 

G.  acrliim 

acriiim 

acriiim 

jD.  acril^iis 

acritoiis 

acribiks 

A.  acres,  is 

acres.  Is 

acria 

V.  acres 

acres 

acri^ 

A.  acril>ia.s 

acri^biis 

acribiis. 

1.  Like  Acer  are  declined : 

1)  Alacer  ^ liY  Q\y  \ campester^  level;  celeher^  famous;  celer  ^ swift;  eques- 
ter^ equestrian ; paluster^  marshy ; pedester^  pedestrian ; puter ^ putrid ; 
her^  healthful ; silvester^  woody ; terrester^  terrestrial ; roVdcer^  winged. 
Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months 

2.  The  Masculine  in  is^  like  the  Fern.,  also  occurs:  salubris^  silvestris, 
for  saluber,  silvester. 


1 This  retains  e in  declension:  celer,  celeris,  celere;  and  has  um  m the  Gen.  Plur. 

2 See  also  77,  II.  2. 


ADJECTIVES. 


49 


S These  fonns  in  er  are  analogous  to  those  in  er  of  Dec.  II.  in  dropping 
the  ending  in  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  inserting  € before  r .*  acer  for 

acris,  stem,  dcri,  ^ 

4.  Aces  is  declined  like  ignis  in  the  Masc.  and  Fern.,  and  like  mare  (63) 
in  the  Neut.,  except  in  the  Norn,  and  Voc.  Sing.,  Masc.  where  it  ends  in  er, 
and  in  the  Abl.  Sing,  where  it  ends  in  i. 

A.154.  Adjectiyi^s JiQF  'Two  Endings  are  declined  as 

; C\  Vv§  0 

^ ' Tristior,  more  sad. 


% 


1 


Tristis,  sad. 


NEUT. 

feliN  vj  U Li  Axv* 

M.  aiid  F. 

NEUT. 

V.Ariltis 

tristi  ' 

A",  tristior 

tristius 

G.  tri|tis 

tristiS  ^ 

G.  tristioris 

tristioris 

\ ^ triJbi 

tristl 

JD.  tristiori 

tristiori 

triste- 

A,  tristiorem 

tristius 

, ^ 1^.  tristis 

tristi 

V.  tristior 

tristius 

\ A.  tristX  ^ 

tristl 

A.  tristiore  (I) 

tristiore  (i) ; 

V 

plural. 

N'.  tristes 

tristiii) 

A^.  tristiores 

tristiori; 

G.  tristiwLHi 

tristiu-Hi 

G.  tristiorikm 

tristioram 

D.  tristitoiis 

tristil>iis 

D.  tristiori'toiis 

tristiorll>iis 

tristes.  Is 
(F.  tristes 

tristia 

A.  tristiores 

tristiora 

tristi^ 

V.  tristiores 

tristiora 

A.  tristil>ia.s 

tristil>8is. 

A,  tristioril>iis 

tristiorll>ti.s. 

Z 


' 1.  Tristis  and  Triste  are  declined  like  dcris  and  dcre, 

2.  Tristior  is  the  comparative  (160)  of  tristis. 

3.  Stems.— The  stem  of  tristis  is  tristi;  that  of  was  originally 

tristids,  but  it  has  been  modified  toj^istius  (61,  1)  in  the  Nom.,  Acc.,  and 
Voc.  Sing.  Neut.,  and  to  tristior  in  the  other  cases  (35). 

4.  Like  tristior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the 
Abl.  Sing,  in  e,  sometimes  in  i,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a,  and  the  Gen. 
Plur.  in  um.  But 

5.  Complures,  several,  has  Gen.  Plur.  complurium ; Nom.,  Acc.,  and 
Voc.  Plur.  Neut.  complura  or  compluria.  See  Plus,  165,  1. 

6.  Ablative  in  e. — In  poetry,  adjectives  in  is,  e,  sometimes  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  6 .*  cognomine  from  cognominis,  of  the  same  name. 


155.  Adjectives  of  One  Ending  generally  end  ins 
or  sometimes  in  I or  r,  and  are  declined  in  the  main  like 
nouns  of  the  same  endings. 


60 


ADJECTIVES. 


Y 156.  Audax,  audacious,  Felix,  happy. 

SINGULAR. 

M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

N.  audax 

audax 

iV.  felix 

felix 

G.  audacis 

audacis 

G,  felTcis 

felicis 

D.  audaci 

audaci 

D.  fellci 

fellci 

A.  audacem 

audax 

A.  fellc^na 

felix 

V.  audax 

audax 

V.  felix 

felix 

A.  audaci  (^) 

audaci  (^) ; 

A.  fellci  (e) 

fellci  {^) ; 

PLURAL. 

N.  audaces 

audaciH 

JSF.  fellers 

felicia 

G.  audaciiAin. 

audaciiiiii 

G.  feliciiiiia 

feliciiiin. 

D.  audaci'biis 

audacil>iks 

D.  felicil>iis 

felicifetis 

A.  audaces  (is) 

1 andacia 

A.  felTces  (is) 

felicia 

V.  audaces 

audacia 

V.  felices 

felici^ 

A.  audacil>ws 

audacil>iis. 

A.  felicii>iis 

felicil>iis. 

1.  Stems. — Most  Adjectives  of  One  Ending  are  combinations  of  i-stems 
and  consonant  stems — the  former  appearing  in  the  Abl.  Sing,  and  in  the 
Plural.  The  stems  of  audax  and  felix  are  audaci^  audac^  and  felici^  fellc, 

157.  loving,  prudent 

SINGULAR. 


M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  and  F. 

NEUT. 

iV.  amans 

amans 

dd.  prudens 

prudens 

G.  amantis 

amantis 

G.  prudentis 

prudentis 

2).  amanti 

amanti 

J).  prudenti 

prudenti 

A.  amantem 

amans 

A.  prudentem 

prudens 

V.  amans 

amans 

V.  prudens 

prudens 

A.  amante  (i) 

amanti  (I) ; 

A.  prudenti  (^) 

PLURAL. 

prudenti  (^) ; 

iV.  amantes 

amanti^ 

iV.  prudentes 

prudenti^ 

G.  amantiiim 

amantiiim 

G.  prudentiiim 

prudentiiim 

D.  amantil>iis 

amantiljiis 

JD.  prudentil>iis 

prudentil>iis 

A.  amantes  (is)  amantia 

A.  prudentes  (is)  prudentia 

V.  amantes 

amanti^ 

V.  prudentes 

prudentia 

A.  amantil>MS 

amantil>iis. 

A.  prudentil>iis 

prudentitotis. 

1.  The  stems  are  amanti^  amant ; prudenti^  prudent. 

The  participle  amans  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  pru- 
dens  only  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  where  the  participle  usually  has  the  ending 
and  the  adjective,  i.  Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  i. 
A few  adjectives  have  only  e in  general  use: — {\)  pauper^  paup^re^  poor; 


ADJECTIVES. 


51 


pUhes^  puUre^  mature (2)  those  in  es,  G.  itis  or  idis : ales^  descs,  dives, 
sospes,  superstes  ; — (3)  caelebs,  compos,  impos,  princeps. 


Memor,  mindful. 


^ 158.  Vetus,  old. 


SINGULAR. 


M.  and  F. 
memor 


M.  and  F.  NEUT. 

iV.  vetus  vetus 


NEUT. 

memor 


memoris 


G.  veteris  veteris 


memoris 

memori 


memori 

memor 

memor 


D.  veteri  veteri 

A.  veter^sn  vetus 

K vetus  vetus 


memorem 

memor 

memori 


memori ; 


A.  veteri  (i)  veteri  (i) ; 


PLURAL. 


memores 

memoriim 


iV  veteres  veteri 


G.  veterwm  veteriim 

D.  veteril>iis  veteritoiis 


memoril>iis 


memores 

memores 


A.  veteres  vetera 

F.  veteres  vetera 


memoril>iis. 


A.  veteril>as  veteril>iis. 


^ 1.  Neuter  Plural. — Many  adjectives  like  memor,  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neut.  Plur. : uher,  fertile,  has  uhera,  like  vetus, 
vetera  ; all  others  have  the  ending  ia,  as  felicia,  prudentia. 

Genitive  Plural. — Most  adjectives  have  ium,  but  the  following 
have  um. 


ectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e in  the  ablative  singular  (157,  2) : 


pauper,  pauperum. 

2)  Those  with  the  genitive  in  eris,  oris,  uris : vUus,  veterum,  old ; 
memor,  membrum,  mindful ; cicur,  cicurum,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps : anceps,  ancipitum,  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  um ; inops  (ops, 
opum),  inbpum,  helpless. 


IREEGULAB  ADJECTIVES. 


159.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be 

I.  Indeclinable  : frugi,  frugal,  good ; nequam,  worthless ; millb, 
thousand.  See  176. 

II.  Defective  : (ceterus)  cetera,  ceterum,  the  other,  the  rest ; (ludicer) 
ludicra,  ludicrum,  sportive;  (sons)  sontis,  guilty;  (seminex)  seminecis, 
half  dead  ; pauci,  ae,  a,  used  only  in  the  Plur.  See  also  168,  1. 

III.  Heteroclites. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
us,  a,  um,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e of  the 
third:  hilbrus  and  hilaris,  joyful;  exanimus  and  exanimis,  lifeless. 


52  C5i 


ADJECTIVES. 


COMPARISOiT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

<^160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive, 
the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative  degree  : altus^  altibr^ 
altissim'bcSj  high?  higher,  highest.  These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of 
comparison  : ‘ 

I.  TEEMiNATio^iTAL  COMPARISON — by  endings. 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison — -by  adverbs. 

I.  Terminational  Comparison. 

162.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to 
the  stem  of  the  positive  the  endings  : 

Comparative,  Superlative. 

M.  r.  N.  I M.  F.  N. 

ior,  ior,  ins.  lissimus,  issima,  issimump 

Altus,  altior,  altisi^imus  : high^  higher^  highest. 
levis,  levior,  leviss5^mus  : lights  lighter^  lightest. 

1.  V owEL  Stems  lose  their  final  vowel : alto^  altior^  altissimus, 

1 63.  Irregular  Superlatives. — Many  adjectives  with 
regular  comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.  Thus  : 

1.  Adjectives  in  er  add  rimus  to  the  positive  : ' acer^ 
cicrior^  acerrimus.^  sharp. 

V^tus  has  veterrimus  ; matarus^  both  maturrimus  and  maturissimus  / 
dexter^  dextimus. 

%.  Six  in  ilis  add  limus  to  the  stem 

Facilis,  difficilis;  easy.^  difficult, 
similis,  dissimilis  ; like^  unlike. 
gracilis,  humilis;  slender  low : 

f acilis^  facilior.,  facillimus.  Imbecillis  has  imhecillimus. 

1 The  superlative  ending*  ts-simus  is  probably  compounded  of  ts  forios,  the  original 
comparative  ending  (154,  8),  and  simus  for  fimus;  ios-firnus—ios-slmxis—is-^mus. 
After  I and  r,  the  first  element  is  omitted,  and  s assimilated:  fdeilis,  faeU-simus^ 
faeiUunus;  Cicer^  acer-simus^  acer-rwius. 


kT 


53 


ECTIVES. 

3.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives 

Exterus,  exterior,  extremus  and  extimus,  outward, 

inferus,  inferior,  infimus  and  Imus,  lower. 

superus,  superior,  supremus  and  summus,  upper. 

posterus,  posterior,  postremus  a/ic?  posttous,  next. 

1 64.  Compounds  in  dicus,  ficus,  and  vblus  are  compared  with  the 

endings  entior  and  entissimus,  as  if  from  forms  in  em : , 

Maledicus,  maledicentior,  maledicentissimus,  slanderous. 
munificus,  munificentior,  munificentissimus,  liberal. 
benevolus,  benevolentior,  benevolentissimus,  benevolent. 

1.  Egenus  2indLprdmdus  (needy  and  prudent),  form  the  comparative  and 
superlative  from  egens  oxidi  providens  ! hence  egentior.^  eg  entissimus^  etc. 

2.  Mirifkissimus  occurs  as  the  superlative  of  mirificus.^  wonderful. 

165.  Special  Irregularities  of  Comparison. 


f 1.  Plus  IS  neuter,  and  has  in  the  singular  only  N.  and  A.  plus,  and  G. 
pluris.  In  the  plural  it  has  N.  and  A.  plures  (m.  and  f.),  plicrd  (n.),  G. 
plurium,  D.  and  A.  pluribus. 


Bonus, 

melior, 

optimus, 

good. 

malus, 

pejor. 

pessimus. 

bad. 

magnus, 

major, 

maximus, 

great. 

parvus, 

minor. 

minimus. 

small. 

multus, 

plus, 

plurimus. 

much. 

j divitior,  divitissimus,  ) 

( ditior,  ditissimus,  ) 

frugalior,  frugalissimus,  frugal. 

nequior,  nequissimus,  worthless. 


citimus,  nearer. 

deterrimus,  xoorse, 
intimus,  inner. 

bcissimus,  swifter. 


prior,  primus, 
propior,  proximus, 
ulterior,  ultimus. 


former. 

nearer. 

farther."^ 


X 


■r 


2.  Dives, 

frugi, 
nequam, 

166.  Positive  wanting. 

Citerior, 
deterior, 
interior, 
ocior, 

167.  Comparative  wanting.  • ■ 

1.  In  a few  participles  used  adjectively:  mh'itus,  meritissimus,  de- 
serving. 

2.  In  these  adjectives  : 


1 These  adjectives  are  formed  from  cltrd,  de,  inird,  Greek  prae  or  pro, 

prope,  ultra. 


54 


ADJECTIVES. 


noVus, 

sacer, 

veljus, 


novissimus, 

sacerrimus, 

veterrimus. 


new, 

sacred, 

old. 


Diversus,  diversissimus,  different, 
falsus,  falsissimus.  false, 
inclutus,  inclutissimus,  renowned, 
invitus,  invitissimus,  unwilling. 


168.  Superlative  wanting. 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  ills  and  bilis : docilis^  docilior^  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  ^is  and  ilis  : capitalis,  capitalior,  capital. 

3.  Y^dldcer,  alacrior,  caecws,  blind ; diuturnus,\di^iin^',  longin- 

quus, distant ; oplmus,  rich ; proclivis,  steep  ; propinquus,  near  ; sdlutaris, 
salutary,  and  a few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thus: 


Adolescens,  adolescentior,  minimus  natu,'  young. 

juvenis,  junior,  minimus  natu,  young. 

senex,  senior,  maximus  natu,  old. 

169.  Without  Terminational  Comparison. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  such 
as  denote  material,  possession,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time  : aureus, 
golden ; paternus,  paternal ; Rbmdnus,  Eoman ; aestivus,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  hy  a vowel,  except  those  in  quus: 
idoneus,  suitable ; noxius,  hurtful. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  dlis,  dris,  Ilis,  ulus,  icus,  Inus,  orus : mortdlis 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,  white ; claudus,  lame ; ferus,  wild ; lassus,  weary ; mlrus,  won- 
derful, and  a few  others. 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison. 


170.  Adjectives  whicli  want  tlie  terminational  comparison, 
form  the  comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  re- 
quires it,  by  prefixing  the  adverbs  mdgis,  more,  and  maxlme,  most, 
to  the  positive : arduus,  magis  arduus,  maxime  arduus,  arduous, 

1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  differ- 
ent degrees  of  the  quality : admodum,  valde,  oppido,  very ; imprimis,  ap^ 
prime,  in  the  highest  degree ; valde  magna,  very  great.  Per  and  prae  in 
composition  with  adjectives  have  the  force  of  very  g perdifficilis,  very  diffi- 
cult ; praecldrus,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  Particles  are  also  sometimes  used, — (1)  With  the  com- 
parative : etiam,  even,  multb,  longe,  much,  far : etiam  dlligentior,  even  more 
diligent ; multo  diligentior,  much  more  diligent, — (2)  With  the  superlative : 
multd,  longe,  much,  by  far;  qudm,  as  possible:  multo  or  longe  diligentissi^ 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ; quam  diligentissimus,  as  diligent  as  possible. 


1 Smallest  or  youngest  in  age.  Ratu  is  sometimes  omitted. 


55 


TABLE  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

Numerals. 

171.  Numerals  comprise  numeral  adjectives  and  nu- 
meral adverbs. 

172.  Numeral  adjectives  comprise  three  principal 

clclSSGS  I 

1.  Cardinal  Numbers  : unus^  one  ; two. 

2.  Ordinal  Numbers  : primus^  first ; secundus^  second. 

3.  Distributives  : singtd\  one  by  one  ; l}%n\  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

1 73.  To  these  may  be  added : 

1.  Multiplicatives.— These  are  adjectives  in  plex,  G.  pUcis,  denoting 
so  many  fold : simplex^  single ; duplex^  double ; triplex^  threefold. 

2.  Proportionals. — These  are  declined  like  honus^  and  denote  so 
many  times  as  great : duplus^  twice  as  great ; triplus^  three  times  as  gi  eat, 

174.  Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives. 

Distributives. 
singuli,  one  hy  one, 
bini,  two  by  two, 
terni  (trini), 
quaterni, 
quini, 
seni, 
septeni, 
octoni, 
noveni, 
deni, 
undeni, 
duodeni, 
terni  deni, 
quaterni  dSni. 
quini  deni, 
seni  deni. 

septeni  deni. 

1 Sometimes  with  the  parts  separated : decern  et  ires;  decern  et  sex^  etc. 

2 PrioT  is  used  instead  of  primus  in  speaking  of  two,  and  alter  is  often  used  foif 
secundus. 

^ Sometimes  decimus  precedes  with  or  without  et  .*  decimus  et  tertius  or  decimus 
tertius. 


\^Cardinals. 
d.  unus,  una,  unum, 
/2.  duo,  duae,  duo, 

' 3.  tres,  tria, 

^ / 4.  quattuor, 

5.  quinque, 

AV  6.  sex, 

H / 7.  septem, 

‘ 8.  octo, 

9.  novem, 

10.  decem, 

11.  undecim, 

12.  duodecim, 

13.  tredecim,^ 

14.  quattuordecim, 

15.  quindecim, 

16.  sedecim  or  sexde- 
cim,^ 

17.  septendecim,' 


Ordinals. 
prlmus,2^r5^, 
secundus,^  second., 
tertius,  third., 
quartus,  fourth^ 
quintus,  fifth, 
sextus, 
septimus, 
octavus, 
nonus, 
decimus, 
undecimus, 
duodecimus, 
tertius  decimus/ 
quartus  decimus, 
quintus  decimus, 
sextus  decimus, 

I septimus  decimus. 


l ' ^ 

56  TABLE  OF  NUMEBAL  ADJECTIVES. 


Cardinals. 

18.  duodeviginti,^ 

19.  undeviginti,^ 

V20.  viginti, 

(viginti  uniis, 

‘ (unus  et  viginti,^ 

22.  duo, 

(duo  et  viginti, 

80.  triginta, 

40.  quadraginta, 

60.  quinquaginta, 

60.  sexaginta, 

70.  septuaginta, 

80.  octoginta, 

90.  nonaginta, 

100.  centum, 

101 

* (centum  et  unus,^ 
200.  ducenti,  ae,  a, 
800.  trecenti, 

400.  quadringenti, 

600.  quingenti, 

600.  sexcenti, 

700.-  septingenti, 

800.  octingenti, 

900.  nongenti, 

1,000.  mille, 

2,000.  duo  millia,'* 
10,000.  decem  millia. 


Ordinals. 
duodevicesimus,^ 
undevicesimus,® 
vicesimus,® 
vicesimus  primus, 
unus  et  vicesimus^, 
vicesimus  secundus, 
alter  et  vicesimus, 
tricesimus,® 
quadragesimus, 
quinquagesimus, 
sexagesimus, 
septuagesimus, 
octogesimus, 
nonagesimus, 
centesimus, 
centesimus  primus, 
centesimus  et  primus 
ducentesimus, 
trecentesimus, 
quadringentesimus, 
quingentesimus, 
sexcentesimus, 
septingentesimus, 
octingentesimus, 
nongentesimus, 
millesimus, 
bis  millesimus, 
decies  millesimus. 


Distributives. 

duodeviceni. 

undeviceni. 

viceni. 

viceni  singuli.  ^ 

singuli  et  viceni. 
viceni  bini.  ( 

bini  et  viceni, 
triceni, 
quadrageni, 
quinquageni, 
sexageni.  ^ 


septuageni.  ^ .i- y J 
octogeni.'  . j 
nonageni.  ^ ^ . 
centeni, 
centeni  singuli, 
centeni  et  sin'giili. 


duceni. 

treceni. 

quSdringeni. 

quinggni. 

sexceni. 

septingeni. 

octingeni. 

nongeni. 

singula  millia. 

bina  millia. 

dena  millia. 


* Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction ; but  these  numbers 
may  be  expressed  by  addition : decern  et  octo  ; decern  et  novem  ; so  28,  29 ; 38,  39, 
etc.,  either  by  subtraction  from  triginta^  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  viginti;  duodetri- 
ginta or  octo  et  viginti. 

2 If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.  So 
in  English  cardinals,  twenty-one,  one  and  twenty. 

3 In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds, 
etc.,  as  in  English;  but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between 
the  two  highest  denominations:  mille  centum  viginti  or  mille  at  centum  viginti, 
1120. 

^ Sometimes  hina  milUa  or  bis  mille. 

® Sometimes  expressed  by  addition,  like  the  corresponding  cardinals ; octavus 
decimus  and  nonus  decimus. 

« Sometimes  written  with  vigesimus;  trigesimus. 


51 


DECLENSIO^T  OF  NUMEEAE  ADJECTIVES. 

/ 


Cardinals. 

100,000.  centum  millia, 
1,000,000.  decies  centena  miD 
lia,^ 


Ordinals. 
-cei^ties  millesimus, 
dpcies  centies  mil- 
lesimus. 


Distributives. 
centena  millia, 
decies  centena  millia. 


/ 


1.  Ordinals  ’ with  Fars^  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions:  tertia  pars  y a third  part,  a third;  quarta  pars^  a fourth; 
duae  tertiae,  two  thirds. 

2.  Distributives  are  used 

1)  To  show  the  number  of  objects  taken  at  a time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adding  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece;  ternos  denarios  acceperunt,  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.  Hence  : 

2)  To  express  Multiplication  : decus  centena  millia,  ten  times  a hundred 
thousand,  a million. 

cx  3)  Instead  of  Cardinals,  with  nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in 
sense : blna  castra,  two  camps.  Here  for  singuli  and  temi,  uni  and  trlni 
are  used  : unae  litterae,  one  letter ; trl^ae  litterae,  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  in  reference  to  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs:  blni  scyphi, 
a pair  of  goblets ; and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals : blna  has- 
tilia, two  spears.  v 

3.  Poets  use  numeral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compounding  num- 
bers : bis  sex,  for  duodecim ; bis  septem,  for  quattuordecim. 

4.  Sexcenti  and  mille  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  in  English. 


^iDECLENSioisr  OF  Ndmeeal  Adjectives. 

136,  The  first  three  cardinals  are  declined  as  follows 


Unus, 

one. 

) 1 ' 

SINGULAR. 

plural. 

M.  uniis 

una 

uniim 

uni 

unae 

una 

) G.  unliis 

unliis 

unliis 

unoru^ 

unariim 

unOrum 

J,  D.  uni 

uni 

uni 

unis 

unis 

unis 

A.  uniim 

unam 

uniim 

unos 

unas 

una 

K une 

una 

uniim 

uni 

unae 

un3. 

A.  uno 

una 

uno ; 

unis 

unis 

unis. 

Duo,  two. 

Tres,  three. 

JV.  duo 

duae 

duo 

tres,  m. 

and  f. 

tria,  n. 

G.  duoriim  duarum 

duoriim^ 

trium 

triiim 

1 Literally  ten  times  a hundred  thousand ; the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 
desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centena  millia : centies 
centena  millia,  10,000,000 ; sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  millia  is  under- 
stood and  only  the  adverb  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  cemtum  millia  is  used. 

2 Dudru/m  and  dudruw^  are  sometimes  shortened  to  duum. 


58 


NUMERALS. 


B. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

A. 

duos,  duo  duas 

duo 

tres,  tris 

tria 

V. 

duo. 

duae 

duo 

tres 

tria 

A. 

duobiis 

duabus 

duobus. 

tribiis 

tribus. 

The  plural  of  unu8  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun ; 
uni  Uhii^  the  Ubii  alone ; but  in  the  strict  numeral  sense  of  one^  it  is  used 
only  with  such  nouns  as,  though  plural  in  form,  are  singular  in  sense : una 
castra^  one  camp ; unae  litterae^  one  letter. 

OC  ~ 2.  Like  duo  is  declined  ambo^  both. 

3.  Multi^  many,  and  plurimi^  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and 
as  such  generally  want  the  sing.  But  in  the  poets  the  sing,  occurs  in  the 
sense  of  many  a : multa  hostia^  many  a victim. 

176.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

177.  Hundreds,  ducenti^  trecenti^  etc.,  are  declined  like  the 
plural  of  'honuB : ducenti^  ae^  a, 

178.  Mille  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable:  as  a substantive  it 
is  used  in  the  singular  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative,  but 
in  the  plural  it  is  declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) ; millia^ 
millium^  millibus. 


With  the  substantive  Mille ^ the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is  gen- 
erally in  the  genitive : mille  hominum^  a thousand  men  (of  men) ; but  it  is 
in  the  same  case  as  mille^  if  a declined  numeral  intervenes:  tria  millia 
trecenti  milites^  three  thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 


1 79.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus  and  distributives  like  the 
plural  of  bonus^  but  the  latter  often  have  um  for  brum  in  the 
genitive ; blnum  for  binorum. 


180.  Numeral  Symbols. 


ARABIC.  ROMAX. 

1.  I. 

2.  II. 

3.  III. 

4.  lY. 

6.  Y. 

6.  YI. 

1.  YII. 

8.  YIII. 


ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

9. 

IX. 

10. 

X. 

11. 

XI. 

12. 

XII. 

13. 

XIII. 

14. 

XIY. 

15. 

XY. 

16. 

XYI. 

ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

17. 

XYII. 

18. 

XYIII. 

19. 

XIX. 

20. 

XX. 

21. 

XXL 

22. 

XXII. 

30. 

XXX. 

40. 

XL. 

1 This  according  to  Corssen  is  the  proper  form,  though  the  word  is  often  written 
with  one  I : milia. 


l^UMERALS. 


59 


ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

ARABIC. 

ROMAN. 

60. 

L. 

200. 

CO. 

900. 

DCCCC. 

60. 

LX. 

300. 

cco. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M. 

10, 

LXX. 

400. 

ccco. 

2,000. 

CIOCIO,  or  MM. 

80. 

LXXX. 

500. 

10,  or  D. 

10,000. 

CCIOO. 

90. 

xo. 

600. 

DO. 

100,000. 

CCCIOOO, 

100. 

c. 

VOO. 

DCC. 

1,000,000. 

CCCCIOOOO. 

101. 

CL 

800. 

DCCO. 

1.  Latin  Numeral  Symbols  are  combinations  of:I  = l;V=5;  X = 10; 
L = 50;  C = 100;  lOorJ)  = 500;  CIO  orM=  1,0000 

2.  In  the  Combination  of  these  symbols,  except  10,  observe 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a symbol  doubles  the  value : II  = 2 ; XX  = 
20 ; CC  = 200. 

2)  That  any  symboT^tanding  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value : V ■= 
5;  IV  = 4(5  - 1);  VI  = 6 (5  + 1). 

3.  In  the  Combination  of  10  observe 

1)  That  each  0 (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold : 10 
= 500 ; 100  = 500  x 10  = 5,000 ; 1000  = 5,000  x 10  = 50,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C the  same  number  of 
times  before  I as  0 stands  after  it : 10  = 600 ; CIO  = 500  x 2 = 1,000 ; 100 
= 5,000;  CCIOO  = 5,000  x.2  = 10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value : 10  = 
500 ; IOC  = 600 ; lOCC  ^ 'TOO. 


Numeeal  Adveebs. 

181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  ab verbs.  For  con 
venience  of  reference  we  add  the  following  table : 


1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  three  times 

4.  quSter 

6.  quinquies 

6.  sexies 

7.  septies 

8.  octies 

9.  novies 

10.  decies 


11.  undecies 

12.  duodecies 
terdecies 
tredecies 

j quaterdecies 
‘ ( quattuordecies 
( quinquiesdecies 
’ ' quindecies 
sexiesdecies 
sedecies 


lY.  septiesdScies 
rduodevicies 
’ ( octiesdecies 
undevicies 
noviesdecies 

20.  vicies 

21.  semel  et  vicies 

22.  bis  et  vicies 
30.  tricies 

40.  quadragies 


1 Thousands  are  sometimes  denoted  by  a line  over  the  symbol : II  = 2,000 ; V 
= 5,000. 


4 


CO 


PKONOUi^'S. 


60.  quinquagies 
^ 60.  sexagies 

, 'ZO.  septuagies 
80.  octogies 
^ 90.  nonagiea 

'^JIOO.  centies 

xOl.  centies  semel 


200.  ducenties 
300.  trecenties 
400.  quadringenties 
500.  quingenties 
600.  sexcenties 
'700.  septingenties 
800.  octingenties 


900.  nOningenties^ 

1.000.  millies* 

2.000.  bis  millies 

10,000.  decies  millies 

100,000,  centies  millies 
;, 000, 000.  millies  millies. 


1.  In  Compounds  of  units  and  tens,  tbe  unit  witb  et  generally  precedes, 
as  in  the  table : Ms  et  vicies  / the  tens,  hawever,  with  or  without  et  sometimes 
precede : vicies  et  Ms  or  vieies  Msy  but  not  Ms  vicies, 

2.  Another  Class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  d is  formed  from  the 
ordinals : prlmum,  primOy  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place  ^ tertimn^ 
tertiOy  for  the  third  time. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PRONOUNS. 

182.  The  Peonoun  is  the  part  of  speech  which  sup- 
plies the  place  of  nouns : I ; tu,  thou. 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  : 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  ; tu,  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns  : mens,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  : hic,  this. 

4.  Relative  Pronouns  : qul,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  : quis,  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  : itUquis,  some  one. 

I.  Peesonal  Peonotjns. 

184.  Personal  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 


1 Also  written  nongenties. 

2 Millies  is  often  used  indefinitely  like  the  English  a thousand  times. 


PKONOTJNS. 


,1- 

Tu,  thou. 

SINGULAR. 

N.  ego 

tu 

G.  mel 

tul 

D.  mihi 

tibi 

A.  me 

te 

F. 

tu 

A.  me ; 

te ; 

PLURAL. 

N.  nos 

VOS 

^ nostrum  ) 
nostrl  ) 

vestrum 

vestri 

jD.  nobis 

vobis 

A.  nos 

vos 

F. 

vos 

A.  nobis. 

vobis. 

( 


Sui,  of  himself  etc.' 

tlk, 

sul 

sibi 

se ; 


qS}^ 

sul 


sibi 


se. 


rl.  Stems. — The  stems  in  the  Sing.^  are  me^  te^  se ; in  the  Plur.  no^  vo^  se. 

2.  The  Case-Endings  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns. 
3.  Genitive. — Jlei,  tui^  sui^  nostri^  and  ^estri^  are  in  form  strictly  Pos- 
sessive Pronouns  and  are  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  but  by  use  they  have  become 
Personal.  Nostri  and  vestri  have  also  become  Plural.  Nostrum  and  vestrum 
for  nostrorum  and  vestrorum  are  also  Possessives.  See  meus.^  tuus^  suus^ 
etc.,  185. 

\ 4.  Substantive  Pronouns. — Personal  Pronouns  are  also  called  Substan- 

^ tive  pronouns,  because  they  are  always  used  as  substantives. 

5.  Keflexive  Pronoun. — Sui,  from  its  reflexive  signiflcation,  of  himself., 
I etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. 

I 6.  Emphatic  Forms  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. : egbmet.,  I 
I myself ; temet^  etc.  But  the  Nom.  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet,  for  tumet. 

7.  Keduplicated  Forms  : —Sese.,  fete.,  meme.,  for  se,  te,  me. 

8.  Ancient  and  Pare  Forms.: — Mis  for  mei ; tis  for  tui ; ml  for  mihi ; 
med.,  and  mepte  for  me ; fed  for  te ; sed  for  se. 

9.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
^^0  it : mecum.,  tecum. 


II.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

185,  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Posses- 
sives  : 


Of  himself.,  he/rself  itself.  The  Pom.  is  not  used. 

Except  in  the  Nom.  Tu  is  related  to  te,  hut  ego  is  an  entirely  independent  form. 


62 


PRONOUNS. 


meus,  a,  tim,  w/y  ; noster,  tra,  triim,  our  ; 

tuus,  a,  um,  thy^  your  ; vester,  tra,  trum,  your  ; 
suus,  a,  um,  his^  her^  its  y suus,  a,  um,  their, 

1.  Possessives  are  declined  as  adjectives  of  tlie  first  and  second  declen- 
sions ; but  mens  has  in  the  Voc.  Sing.  Masc.  generally  wi,  sometimes  mens, 

2.  Emphatic  forms  inpte  and  met  occur:  suapte^  sudmet. 

3.  Other  possessives  are : (1)  cujus^  whose,  and  cujus^  a, 

whose?  declined  like  honus^  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostras^  G.  dtis^  of  our 
country,  vestrds^  G.  dtis^  of  your  country,  and  cujds^  G.  of  whose 
country,  declined  as  adjectives  of  Peel.  III.  

% 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

186.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they 
specify  the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are 

Hic^  istl^  ille^  is^  ipse^  Idem, 

They  are  declined  as  follows  : 

1.  Hie,  this. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

E. 

K 

M. 

F. 

K 

K hie 

haec 

hdc 

hi 

hae 

haec 

G.  hujiis 

hujus 

hujiis 

horiim 

hariim 

lioriim 

D.  hulc 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

A.  hunc 

hanc 

hoc  3 

hos 

has 

haec 

A.  hoc 

hac 

hoc ; 

his 

his 

his. 

II.  Iste,  that.,  that  of  yours. 

See  450. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

K 

N.  iste 

ista 

istiid 

isti 

istae 

ista 

G.  istius 

istlus 

istlus 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

J).  isti 

isti 

isti 

istis 

istis 

istis 

A.  istiim 

istam 

istud  3 

istos 

istas 

istS 

A.  isto 

ista 

isto ; 

istis 

istis 

istis. 

III.  Hie,  he  or  ihat^  is  declined  like  iste. 


1 From  the  relative  qu%  cujus.  See  187. 

2 From  the  interrogative  quis^  cujus.  See  188. 

8 The  Vocative  is  wanting  in  Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefl' 
nite  Pronouns. 


PEONOTJNS. 


63 


lY.  Is,  Jie^  thiSy  that. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F.  N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

K is 

ea  id 

ei,  ii 

eae 

ea 

G.  ejus 

ejiis  ejiis 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

D.  el 

ei  ei 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis 

A.  eum 

earn  id  ^ 

eos 

eas 

ea 

A.  eo 

ea  eo ; 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis 

eis,  iis. 

Y.  Ipse,  self^  he. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F.  N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  ipse 

ipsa  ipsum 

ipsi 

ipsae 

ipsa 

G.  ipslus 

ipsius  ipsiiis 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

D.  ipsi 

ipsi  ipsi 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

A.  ipsum 

ipsam  ipsum 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

“^A.^ipso 

s 

ipsa  ipso ; 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis. 

YI.  Idem 

, the  same. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F.  N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

K idem 

eMem  idem 

( eidem  2 
( iidem 

eaedem 

eadem 

G.  ejusdem 

ejusdem  ejusdem 

eorundem 

earundem  eorundem 

eidem  eidem 

j eisdem 

eisdem 

eisdem 

iisd§m 

D.  eldem 

i iisdem 

iisdem 

A.  eundem 

eandem  idem 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

eadem  eodem ; 

\ eisdem 

eisdem 

eisdem^ 

A.  eodem 

1 iisdem 

iisdem 

iisdem. 

1.  The  STEMS  are  as  follows : 

1)  Of  Hic — ^0,  ha.^ 

: l ' 

2)  Of  ISTE  and  ille,  for  istus  and  Ulus — isto^  ista^  and  illo^  ilia. 

3)  Of  IS — % eo^  ea. 

. 4)  Of  IPSE,  for  ipsus — ipso^  ipsa.  "'S 

Idem,  compounded  of  is  and  dem^  is  declined  like  is,  but  shortens 
isdem  to  idem  and  iddem  to  idem^  and  changes  m to  n before  the  ending  dcm. 

1 The  Yocative  is  wanting  in  Demonstrative,  Eelative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefi- 
nite Pronouns. 

2 El'dem  and  eisdem  are  the  approved  forms,  hut  ildem  and  ilsdem  are  retained  in 
many  editions.  lidem  and  iisdem  are  in  poetry  dissyllables,  and  are  often  written  Idem 
and  isdem. 

3 By  the  addition  of  i in  certain  cases,  ho  and  ha  become  hi  and  hae^  as  in  hi-c  and 
hae-c. 


C4 


PRONOUNS. 


2.  Hic,  for  M-ce^  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  c^, 
meaning  here.  The  forms  in  c have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.  But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis; 
hice^  hujusce^  hosce^  horunce  {in  changed  to  n),  horunc  {e  dropped).  Ce, 
changed  to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne : hicine, 
hoscme, 

3.  Illic  and  Istic. — The  particle  ce,  generally  shortened  to  c,  except 
after  s,  is  sometimes  appended  to  ille  and  isie : illic  for  ille^  illaec  for  illa^ 
illoc  or  illuc  for  illud^  illiusce^  etc. 

4.  Ancient  and  Eaee  Forms: 

1)  Of  Hic  : hisce  for  hice,  hi  ; haec  for  hae. 

‘ 2)  Of  IsTE  and  ille  : forms  in  I for  lus  and  I in  the  Gen.  and  Dat. : 
ilU  for  illius,  istae  for  istius  or  isti ; also  forms  from  oUus  for  ille : olll,, 
olla^  ollds,^  etc. 

8)  Of  Is : el^  eae,  el^^  Dat.  for  el ; llus,^  eahus,^  Ihus,^  for  els, 

4)  Of  Ipse,  compounded  of  is  and  ^se  (is-pse  = ipse) ; the  uncontracted 
forms : Acc.  eumpse,,  eampse^  Abl.  eopse^  eapse  / with  re : re  eapse,,  reapse  for 
re  ipsa,  in  reality;  also  ipsus  a,  um,  etc.,  for  ipse,  a,  um. 

5)  Syncopated  forms,  compounded  of  ecce  or  en^  lo,  see,  and  some  cases 
of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Acc.  of  ille  and  is  ; eccum  for  ecce  eum ; 
eccos  for  ecce  eos ; ellum  for  en  ilium ; ellam  for  en  illam. 

5.  Demonstrative  Adjectives  : tdlis,,  e,  such ; tantus^  a,  -wm,  so  great ; 
tot,  so  many ; totus,  a,  um,  so  great.  Tot  is  indeclinable ; the  rest  regular. 

For  tdlis,  the  Gen.  of  a demonstrative  with  modi  (Gen.  of  modus,  meas- 
ure, kind),  is  often  used : hujusmodi,  ejusmodi,  of  this  kind,  such. 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1 87.  The  Relative  qu^  who,  so  called  because  it  relates 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood,  called 
its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

N.  quI 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

G.  cujus 

cujus 

cuj  us 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

D.  cui 

cui 

CUI 

quibiis 

quibus 

quibus 

A.  quern 

quam 

quod  2 

quos 

quas 

quae 

A.  quo  * 

qua 

quo; 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus. 

1.  Stems. — The  stem  is  quo,  qua.^ 


1 Sometimes  ei  as  a diphthong. 

2 Tlie  Vocative  is  wanting.  See  186, 1.  Foot-note. 

3 Quo  becomes  co,  cu  in  cujus  and  cui.  Qui  and  quae  are  formed  from  quo  and 
qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  hi-c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  ha. 


PRONOUNS. 


65 


•2.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms  : quojus  and  quoi  for  cnjus  and  eui ; qul 
for  quo,  qua ; quls  (queis)  for  quibus. 

3.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it : quibuscum. 

4.  Quicumque  and  Quisquis,  whoever^  are  called  from  their  signification 
^ general  relatives^  Quicumque  (quicunque)  is  declined  like  qui.  Quisquis  is 

rare  except  in  the  forms:  quisquis^  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoquo. 

Tv  5.  The  parts  of  Quicumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more 
W'ords : qua  re  cnimque. 

6.  Relative  Adjectives:  qudlis^  e,  such  as;  quantus,  a,  um^  so  great; 
guot,  as  many  as ; quotus,  a,  urn,  of  which  number ; and  the  double  and 
compound  forms : qualisqualis,  qualiscumque,  etc. 

For  Qualis  the  genitive  of  the  relative  with  modi  is  often  used : cujus- 
modi,  of  what  kind,  such  as ; cujuscumquemodi,  cuicuimodi  (for  cujuscujus- 
modi),  of  whatever  kind 

jk 

V,  Interrogative  Pronouns.  > 

188.  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions. The  most  important  are 

Quis  and  qui  with  their  compounds. 

L Quis,  who^  which^  what  f 


SINGULAR, 

PLURAL. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

quis 

quae 

quid 

qui 

quae 

quae 

O.  cujus 

cujus 

cujiis 

quorum 

quaruin 

quorum 

D.  cui 

cm 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

A.  quem 

quam 

quid 

quos 

quas 

quae 

A.  quo 

qua 

quo; 

quibiis 

quibus 

quibus. 

II.  Qui,  which,  what  ? is  declined  like  the  relative  quL 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  Qui,  adjectively. 

2.  Stem. — From  the  stem,  quo,  qua,  are  formed, — (1)  The  relative  qul, 
— (2)  The  interrogative s quis  and  qui, — (3)  The  indefinites  quis  and  qul, 

3.  Quis  and  Quem  are  sometimes  feminine.  Qui,  for  quo,  qua,  occurs  in 
the  sense  of  how  f The  other  ancient  forms  are  the  same  as  in  the  relative. 
See  187,  2, 

V 4.  Compounds  of  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns : 
quisnam,  quinam,  ecquis,  etc.  But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquale, 

5.  Interroga^tive  Adjectives:  qudlis,  e,  what?  quantus,  a,  um,  how 
great  ? qubt,  how  many  ? qubtus,  a,  um,  of  what  number  ? uter,  utra,  utrum, 
which  (of  two)  ? See  151. 


66 


VEEBS. 


VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 


1 89.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
person  or  things.  The  most  important  are 

Qui8  and  qu\  with  their  compounds, 

190.  Quis^  any  one,  and  gui^  any  one,  any,  are  the 
same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogatives  quis  and 
quL  But 


1.  After  8%^  nis%  and  num^  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  quae 
or  qua : si  quae,  si  qua. 

191.  From  quis  and  qui  are  formed 


I.  The  Indefinites : 

^-aliquis,  aliqua,  aliquid 

quispiam,  quaepiam,  quidpiam ' 
quidam,  quaedam,  quiddam 
quisquam,  quaequam,  quidquam  ^ 

II.  The  General  Indefinites : 

^quisque,  quaeque,  quidque  ^ 

quivis,  quaevis,  quidvis 

quilibet  quaelibet,  quidlibet 


or  aliquod,  some^  some  one. 
or  quodpiam,  some^  some  one. 
or  quoddam,  certain^  certain  one. 
any  one. 


or  quodque, 
or  quodvis, 
or  quodlibet. 


every ^ every  one. 
any  one  you  please, 
any  one  you  please. 


1.  These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  the  simple  quis  and  qui., 
but  have  in  the  Neut.  Sing,  both  quod  and  quid.,  the  former  used  adjectively., 
the  latter  substantively. 

2.  Aliquis  has  aliqua  instead  of  aliquae  in  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut. 
Plur.  Aliqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

3.  Quldam  may  change  mto  n before  d : quendam  for  quemdam. 

4.  Quisquam  generally  wants  the  Fern,  and  the  Plur. 

5.  Unus  prefixed  to  quisque  does  not  alfect  its  declension : unusquisque.^ 
unaquaeque.,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VERBS. 

Verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  express  existence, 
condition,  or  action  : est,  he  is  ; dorinit^  he  is  sleeping  ; 
legit.^  he  reads. 


1 Sometimes  written  respectively,  quippiam^  quicquam,  quicque. 


VERBS. 


67 


Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes  : 

I.  Transitive  Verbs, — which  admit  a direct  object 
of  their  action  : serviXm  verh^rdt^  he  beats  the  slave.' 

II.  Intransitive  Verbs, — which  do  not  admit  such  an 
object : puer  currit^  the  boy  runs. 

r-^194.  Verbs  have  Yoice^  Mood^  Tense^  Number^  and 

V 

Person, 

I.  Voices. 

195.  There  are  two  Voices  ; 

I.  The  Active  Voice,^ — which  represents  the  subject 

as  acting  or  existing  \ pater  amat^  the  father  loves 

his  son  ; es%  he  is. 

II.  The  Passive  Voice, — which  represents  the  subject 
as  acted  upon  by  some  other  person  or  thing  ; jilids  d pdtre 
dmdtdr^  the  son  is  loved  by  his  father. 

1.  Intransitiye  Verbs  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  but  are 
sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive.  See  301,  1. 

2.  Deponent  Verbs ^ are  Passive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense:  loqubr^  to 
speak.  But  see  225. 

II.  Moods. 

(7^  196.  Moods''  are  either  Definite  or  Indefinite  : 

I.  The  Definite  or  Finite  Moods  make  up  the  Finite 
Verb  ; they  are  : 

1.  The  Indicative  Mood, — w^hich  either  asserts  some- 
thing as  a fact  or  inquires  after  the  fact  ; he  is  read- 

ing ; legitne^  is  he  reading  ? 

2.  The  Subjunctive  Mood, — which  expresses  not  an 
actual  fact,  but  a possibility  or  conception^  often  rendered 
by  may,  can^  etc. : legate  he  may  read,  let  him  read. 

1 Here  servum,  the  slave,  is  the  direct  object  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  verb 
verberat,  beats : beats  (what?)  the  slave. 

2 Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  acted  upon  (Passive 
Voice). 

3 So  called  from  depono,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning. 

4 Mood,  or  Mode,  means  manner,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moods. 


68 


VERBS, 


But  the  Subjunctive  may  be  variously  translated,  as  we  shall  see  in 
the  Syntax. 

3.  The  Imperative  Mood, — which  expresses  a com- 
mand  or  an  entreaty : leg%  read  thou. 

II.  The  Indefinite  Moods  express  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  in  the  form  of  nouns  or  adjectives  ; they  are  : 

1.  The  Infinitive, — which,  like  the  English  Infinitive, 
gives  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb  without  any  neces- 
sary reference  to  person  or  number  : legere^  to  read. 

2.  The  Gerund, — which  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
in  the  form  of  a verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used 
only  in  the  genitive^  dative^  accusative^  and  ablative  singu- 
lar, It  corresponds  to  the  English  participial  noun  in  ing  : 
amand\  of  loving  ; amandi  causd^  for  the  sake  of  loving. 

3.  The  Supine, — which  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
% in  the  form  of  a verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension,  used 

only  in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singidar : dmdtiXm^  to 
love,  for  loving  ; dmdtu^  to  be  loved,  in  loving. 

4.  The  Participle, — which,  like  the  .English  participle, 
gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective. 

A Latin  verb  may  have  four  participles : two  in  the  Active,  the  Pres- 
ent and  the  Future — amans^  loving ; amaturus^  about  to  love ; — and  two  in 
the  Passive,  the  Perfect — amatus^  loved,  and  the  Gerundive  ^ — amandus^ 
deserving  to  be  loved. 


III.  Tenses 


197.  There  are  six  tenses  : 

I.  Three  Tenses  for  Incomplete  Action  : 

1.  Present : dmo^  I love. 

2.  Imperfect : dmdbdm^  I was  loving. 

3.  Future  : dmdbo^  I shall  love. 

III.  Three  Tenses  for  Completed  Action  : 

1.  Perfect : dmdv\  I have  loved,  I loved. 

2.  Pluperfect : dmdverdm^  I had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect : dmdvm'd^  I shall  have  loved. 


1 Also  called  the  Future  Passive  Participle. 


TEUBS. 


09 


198.  Remarks  ok  Tekses. 


1.  Present  Perfect  and  Historical  Perfect.— The  Latin  Perfect 
sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with  have  {have  loved\  and  is  called 
the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite  ; and  sometimes  to  our  Imperfect 
or  Past  {loved),  and  is  called  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefinite. 

2.  Principal  and  Historical.— Tenses  are  also  distinguished  as 

1)  Principal: — Present,  Present  Perfect,  Future,  and  Future  Perfect 

2)  Historical: — Imperfect,  Historical  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect 

3.  Tenses  wanting, — The  Subjunctive  wants  the  Future  and  Future 
'"-Perfect ; the  Imperative  has  only  the  Present  and  Future ; the  Infinitive, 
’■  jonly  the  Present,  Perfect,  and  Future. 

199.  Numbers  akd  Persons, — There  are  two  num- 
^ bers.  Singular  and  Plural^^  and  three  persons^  First^ 
- Second,  and  Third,  ^ 

y OOJTJUGATION. 


200.  Regular  verbs  are  inflected,  ot'  conjugated,  in 
^ fonr^ifPerent  wa^^s,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four 

Conjugations,  distinguished  from  each  other 

ineinitiye  endings. 

\ Conj.  1.  Conj.  H.  Conj.  III. 

V are,  ere,  ' ere,  ire. 

201.  Stem  and  Principal  Parts. — The  Present  In- 
dicative, Present  Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine 

\*are  called  from  their  importance  the  Principal  Parts  of 
the  verb.  They  are  all  formed,  by  means  of  certain  end- 
'v^ings,  from  one  common  base,  called  the  Stcni,^ 

202.  The  Entire  Conjugation  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 


of  the  proper  endings.® 

203.  Sum,  I am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of 
regular  verbs.  Accordingly  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must 
be  given  at  the  outset. 


* As  in  Nouns.  See  44. 

i^For  treatment  of  stems,  see  249-257. 

3^n  tlie  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings,  both  those  which  distinguish  the 
Principal  Parts  and  those  which  distinguish  the  forms  derived  from  those  parts,  are 
separately  indicated,  and  should4be  carefully  noticed. 


7a 


204.  Siim,  I am, — Stems,  es^fuJ 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine, 

sum,  esse,  fui,  — 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

lam. 


SINGULAR. 

plural. 

sum,^ 

I am^ 

sumiis. 

we  arey 

os. 

thou  art^ 

estis. 

you  arCy 

est. 

he  is  ; 

sunt, 

they  are. 

Imperfect. 

I loas. 

eram, 

I was j 

eramus, 

we  were. 

eras. 

thou  wasty 

• 

eratis. 

you  werey 

erat. 

he  was  ; 

erant. 

they  were. 

Future. 

I shall  or  will  be. 

V 

V y 

ero, 

I shall  he. 

erimus. 

we  shall  bCy 

eris. 

thou  wilt  hey 

eritis. 

you  will  bOy 

erit. 

he  will  he  ; 

erunt. 

they  will  be. 

Perfect. 

I have  beeuy  was. 

fuI, 

I have  beeUy 

fuimus, 

we  have  beeUy 

fuisti, 

thou  hast  heeriy 

fuistis, 

you  have  beeUy 

fait, 

he  has  been  ; 

fuerunt  ) 
fuere,  ) 

they  have  been. 

Pluperfect. 

I had  been. 

fueram. 

I had  heeriy 

fueramus, 

we  had  beeUy 

fueras. 

thoii  hadst  heeriy 

fueratis, 

you  had  be^Uy 

fuerSt, 

he  had  been  ; 

fuerant, 

they  had  been. 

Future 

Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been. 

fuero, 

I shall  have  been^ 

fuerimus. 

we  shall  have  been^  - 

fueris. 

thou  wilt  have  been^ 

fueritis. 

you  will  have  beeUy 

fuerit. 

he  v)ill  have  been 

/ 

fuerint. 

they  will  have  been. 

^ Sum  has  two  V erb-Stems,  while  regular  verbs  have  only  one.  ^ 

^ Sum  is  for  esum^  eram  for  esam.  Whenever  s of  the  stem  & comes  betweeniwo 
vowels,  e is  dropped,  as  in  sum^  sunt^  or  s is  changed  to  r,  as  in  ^ram^  ivo.  See  35. 

^ Or  you  are  j thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn  discourse. 


71 


VERBS. 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

[may  or  can  be. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

sim, 

I may  be,^ 

simus. 

we  may  be, 

sis. 

thou  mayst  be. 

sitis. 

you  may  be, 

sit, 

he  may  be  ; 

sint. 

they  may  be. 

Imperfect. 

I might,  could,  would,  or  should  be. 

essem, 

I might  be. 

essemus, 

we  might  be. 

esses. 

thou  mightst  be, 

essetis. 

you  might  be. 

esset. 

he  might  be  ; 

essent. 

they  might  be. 

Perfect. 


fuerim, 

fueris, 

fuerit, 


I may  or  can  have  been. 
I may  have  heen^  fuerimus, 

thou  mayst  have  heen^  fueritis, 

he  may  have  been  ; fuerint, 


we  may  have  been^ 
you  may  have  been^ 
they  may  have  been. 


Pluperfect. 


fuissem, 

fuisses, 

fuisset. 


I mighty  could.,  would.,  or  should  have  been. 


I might  have  been., 
thou  mightst  have  been., 
he  might  have  been  ; 


fuissemiis,  we  might  have  been., 
fuissetis,  you  might  have  been., 
fuissent,  they  might  have  been. 


Imperative. 


Pres,  es,  be  thou, 

Put.  esto,  thou  shalt  be,"^ 
esto,  he  shall  be  ; ^ 

Infinitive. 


I este,  be  ye. 

I estote,  ye  shall  be,  ' 

1 sunto,  they  shall  be. 

Participle. 


Pres,  esse,  to  be. 

Perf.  fuisse,  to  have  been. 

Put.  fiiturus  esse,^  to  be  about  to  be.\  Put. 


futurus,^  about  to  be. 


1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  beginning  with  eoxs  are  from  the  stem 
es  ; fill  others  from  the  stem/w. 

2.  ^'ARE  Forms  '.—forem,  fores,  foret,  forent,  fore,  for  essem,  esses,  esset, 
essent,  futurus  esse  y siem..sies,  siet,  sient,  or  fuam,  fuds,  fuat,  fuant,  for 

9 


sim,  sis,  sit,  sint. 


On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196, 1.  2. 

2 The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pres.,  or  vrith 


let : be  thou  ; let  him  be. 


3 Futurus  is  declined  like  bonus.  So  in  the  Infinitive : futurus,  a,  um  esse. 


72 


FIKST  CONJUGATIONS’. 


FIEST  CONJUGATION;  A VEKBS. 
205.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

AmS,  I love — Stkm,  &ma' 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf,  Perf.  Ind.  Supine, 

amd,  amai“<5,  amavl,  2matam. 

Indicative  Mood. 


amo, 
am  as, 
am^t, 


ama'a>as, 

amafelit, 


amal>^, 

amal>is, 

amal>it, 


amavi, 

amavisti, 

amavit. 


amaveram, 

amaveras, 

Smaver^t, 


amavero, 

amaveris, 

amaverit, 


Present  Tense. 

I love^  am  loving^  do  love. 

SINGULAR. 

I love., 
thou  lovest^ 
he  loves  ; 


amaiUMS, 

amatis, 

amaBit, 


PLURAL. 
we  love., 
you  lovey 
they  love. 


Imperfect. 

I loved,  loas  loving,  did  love. 
I was  loving, 
thou  wast  loving, 
he  was  loving  ; 


amafeanaiis,  we  were  loving, 
amaliatis,  you  were  loving, 

amal?aiit,  they  were  loving. 


Future. 

I shall  or  will  love. 


I shall  love, 
thou  wilt  love, 
he  will  love  ; 


amal>imiis,  we  shall  love, 


amaMtis, 
amaljitiit, 

Perfect. 

I loved,  have  loved. 


you  will  love, 
they  vjill  love. 


I have  loved,  amavimas,  we  have  loved, 

thou  hast  loved,  amavistis,  you  have  loved, 
he  has  loved  ; amaverastt,  they  have  loved. 

Pluperfect. 

I had  loved. 

I had  loved,  I amav^ranfiias,  we  had  loved, 

thou  hadst  loved,  amaveratis,  you  had  loved, 
he  had  loved ; j amaveraat , they  had  loved. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall,  or  will  have  loved. 


I shall  have  loved, 
thou  will  have" loved, 
he  will  have  loved  ; 


amaverimiis,  we  shall  have  loved, 
amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


1 The  final  a 
ama-im,  ama-is. 


of  the  stem  disappears  in  amo  for  ama-o,  amem,  ames,  etc.,  ^ 
etc.  Also  in  the  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 


73 


Subjunctive. 


ames, 

am^t, 


amaram, 

amares, 

amaret. 


amaverim, 
amaveris, 
amav^rii,  • 


I mighty  couldy  would^  or  should  love. 


I might  love^ 
thou  mightst  love., 
he  might  love  ; 


amaremiis, 

amaretiSj 

amarciit, 


we  might  love, 
you  might  love, 
they  might  love. 


Perfect. 

I may  or  can  have  loved. 


I may  have  loved, 
thou  mayst  have  loved, 
he  may  have  loved  ; 


amav^rimiis,  we  may  have  loved, 
amaveritis,  you  may  have  loved, 
amaverint,  they  may  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 

I might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 


amavissem,  I might  have  loved, 
amavisses,  thou  mightst  have 
loved, 

amavisset,  he  might  have  loved  ; 


have 


am aviss  emits,  we  might 
loved, 

amavissetis,  you  might  have  loved, 
I amavissent,  they  might  have  loved. 


Imperative. 


Pres,  ama,  love  thou  ; 

Put.  amat^,  thou  shalt  love, 
amate,  he  shall  love  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  amare,  to  love. 

Perf.  amavisse,  to  have  loved. 
Put.  amatnriis^  esse,  to  be 
about  to  love. 

Gerund. 


amate,  love  ye. 

amatote,  ye  shall  love, 

am^aiate,  they  shall  love. 

Participle. 

Pres,  amans,^  loving. 

Put.  amatiarii-S,^  about  to  love. 
Supine. 


Gen. 

Dat. 

Acc. 

Ahl. 


amandi, 

amande, 

amandiim, 

amande. 


of  loving, 
for  loving, 
loving, 
by  loving. 


\Acc.  amatiim,  to  love, 

\Ahl.  amatn,  to  love,  be  loved. 


1 For  declension,  see  157. 


2 Decline  like  bonus,  148. 


74 


FIEST  conjugation. 


FIEST  CONJUGATION:  A VERBS. 
206.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Amor,  I am  loved. — Stem,  Uma. 
PEINCIPAL  PAETS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

amdi*,  ama,B-i,  amatiis  sum. 


Indicative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

amor 

amarXs,  or  r^ 
Smatur ; 


Smabar 
amabaris,  or  r^ 
amabatur ; 


Present  Tense. 
lam  loved. 

PLURAL. 

Smamur 

amamiul 

amautur. 

Imperfect. 

I loas  loved. 

amabamur 

amabamini 

amabantur. 


Future, 

I shall  or  will  be  loved. 


amabbr 

amabimiir 

amabaris,  or  r^ 

amabimini 

amabitiir ; 

amabnntiir. 

Perfect. 

I have  been  or  was  loved. 

amatus  sum* 

amati  siimiis 

amatiis  ^s 

amati  estis 

amatiis  est ; 

amati  sunt. 

Pluperfect. 

1 had  been  loved. 

amatiis  or^m* 

amati  Gramiis 

amatus  ^ras 

amati  iratis 

amatus  ^r^t ; 

amati  ^rant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

amatiis  er^  * 

Smati  ^rimiis 

amatiis  ^ris 

amati  tritis 

amatiis  ^rit ; 

amati  ^runt. 

* J^ui^  fuisti.,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum^  es.,  etc. : amatus  fui  for  amatus 
sum.  ^0 fueram.,  fueras.,  etc.,  for  ^ram^  etc.:  also fuiro,  etc.,  for  etc. 


amatiis  ess^m' 

: esses 

amatiis  ess^t ; 

Impekati  VE. 

y ar he  thou  loved  ; | ainamlBiI,  he  ye  loved. 

\ Fut.  amatoi*,  thou  shalt  he  loved,  I 

amator,  he  shall  he  loved  ; I amaait^^r,  they  shall  he  loved. 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  Smart,  to  he  loved. 

Perf.  amatits  esse,^  to  have  been 
loved. 

Fut.  amatitiWL  iri,  to  he  about  to 
he  loved. 


Ger.^  Sm anvils,  to  he  loved,  de- 
serving to  he  loved. 


1 FuMm,  fueris,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim,  sis,  etc.— So  also  fuissem, 
IS,  etc.,  for  essem,  esses,  etc, : roiely  fuisse  for  esse. 

2 GBfi.= Gerundive.  See  196,  4.  ’ 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION;  B VERBS. 


207.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 
Moneo,  I advise, — Stem,  mone. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Int  Perf.  led.  Supine, 

moned,  moneff*e,  moniii,  monitiim. 

Indicative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

mone^ 
mones 
mon^t ; 


mone'foaiii 
monellas 
monelj^^; ; 


mone'feO 
moneMs 
mone  tilt ; 


Present  Tense. 
I advise. 


plural. 

monemas 

monetis 

monent. 


Imperfect. 

I WGis  advising. 

pivne’bamns 
r^TTO^batis 
monefeamt. 

Future. 

I shall  or  will  advise. 

moneMmiis 
moneWtis 
monel>iiiat. 


monui 
monuisti 
monuit ; 


monueram 
monudras 
monu^r^t ; 


monu^r^ 
monu<6ris 
monuerit ; 


Perfect, 

I advised  or  have  advised. 

monuiaaiMS 
monuistis 
monuSmiat,  or  ei"6. 

Pluperfect. 

I had  advised. 

monueramiis 

monueratis 

monuerant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  advised. 

monuerSmiis 
monueritis 
I monuerint. 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 


V7 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

I may  or  can  advise. 


SINGULAR. 

moneas 
moneiit ; 

Imperfect. 

I mighty  could^  would,  or  should  advise. 


PLITRAL. 

moneamiis  ^ " 

moneatis 

moneant. 


monerem, 
moneres 
monSr^t ; 


moner^niiis 

moneretis 

monerent. 


monuerim 
monueris 
monuerit ; 


monuissem 
monuisses 
monuisset ; 


Perfect. 

1 may  have  advised. 

monu^rliaiLiis 
monueritis 
monuerint. 

Pluperfect. 

I might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  advised. 

monuissemits 
monuissetis 
monuissent. 

I]SIPERATIVE. 


Pres,  mone,  advise  thou  ; 

Put.  monetd,  thou  shall  advise, 
monetO,  he  shall  advise  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  monere,  to  advise. 

Perf.  monuisse,  to  have  advised. 
Put.  monitnriis  esse,  to  he 
about  to  advise. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  monendi,  of  advising, 
Dat.  monendo,  for  advising, 
Acc.  monendiim,  advising, 

Ahl  monendd,  by  advising. 


I monete,  advise  ye. 

I mSnetote,  ye  shall  advise, 

1 monento,  they  shall  advise. 

Participle. 

Pres,  monens,  advising. 

Put.  monitliriis,  about  to  advise. 
Supine. 


Acc.  monitam,  to  advise, 

Abl.  momtH,  to  advise,  be  advised. 


IS 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E VERBS. 
208.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Moneor,  J am  advised, — Stem,  mone, 

PEINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

moneoi*,  moneiri,  monltiis  siim. 

Indicative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

mone^r 
moneris,  or  r^ 
monetiir ; 


monel>^r 
mone'baris,  or  r^ 
monel>atmr ; 


Present  Tense. 
lam  advised, 

PLURAL. 

monemiir 

monemial 

monentiar. 

Imperfect. 

I was  advised. 

monefeamilr 

mone'basiaiiil 

m6nei>aiitiir. 

Future. 


I shall  or  will  he  advised. 

monefeor  I monel^iiKiMr 

monefe^ris,  or  r*^  I moneMinimi 

moneMtiir ; | monel>iiiatiir. 

Perfect. 


I have  been  or  was  advised. 


monitiis  siam^ 

moniti  siimiis 

momtits  ^s 

moniti  estis 

monitiis  e.si ; 

moniti  simt. 

Pluperfect. 

Iliad  been  advised. 

monitiis  er^m  ^ 

moniti  Gramiis 

monitiis  eras 

moniti  eratis 

monitiis  ^r^i ; 

moniti  ^rant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  advised. 

monitiis  ^rO  ^ 

moniti  ^rina&s 

monitiis  ^ris 

moniti  tritis 

monitiis  ^rit ; 

moniti  ^riiat. 

^ See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


79 


1 See  206,  foot-notes. 


80 


THIRD  CONJUGATION, 


THIED  COl^JUGATIOK:  COKSONA^TT  YEEBS 

209.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Reg5,  I rule, — Stem,  reg. 


Pres.  Ind. 
regd, 


rego 
rfegis 
regit ; 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

reg^i-^,  rexi,^ 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 

I rule. 

SINGULAR.  PLUI 


Supine. 


regel>&m 
regefeas 
regSlj^t ; 


reg^iuia 
reges 
reget ; 


rexi 
rexisti 
rexit ; 


rexeriim 
rexeras 
rexerat ; 


rexero 
rexeris 
rexerit ; 


regimiis 

regitis 

regiiiat. 


Imperfect. 
I was  ruling. 


regel^amiis 
regel>atis 
regel^amt. 

. Future. 

I shall  or  will  rule. 

regemiis 
regetis 
regent. 

Perfect. 

I ruled  or  have  ruled. 

reximiis 
rexistis 

rexernnt,  or  er^. 

Pluperfect. 

I had  ruled. 

rex^ramtas 
rexeratis 
rexerant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

rex^rianias 
rexeritis 
rexerint. 


1 See  213,  IIL  1 ; 258,  1. 1 ; 258,  ll.  1. 


ACTIYE  YOICE, 


n 


SUBJUKCTIYE. 


regam 

regas 


reg^a'^m 
reg^a-es 
reg^iJi^'eit ; 


reseris 

rex^rit';^ 


Present. 

I may  or  can  rvle, 

SINCrLAR.  PLURAL. 

regamiis 
regatas 
regaiat. 

Imperfect. 

/ mighty  could^  woidd^  or  should  rule. 

1 reg^remMS 

1 reg^P^tls 

i reg^reaat. 

Perfect. 

I may  /i.  ve  ruled. 

rcx^rim^s 
rexeratis 
rex^riaat. 


Pluperfect. 

r 

I might.,  could.,  wmild,  or  should  have  ruled. 
rexissem  rexissemiis 

rexisses  rexissetis 

rexiss-St ; rexisseat. 

Impeeatiye. 


Pres.  regi5,  rule  thou  ; 

Put.  regito,  thou  shalt  rule, 
regito,  he  shall  rule  ; 

IlSTFINITIYE. 

Pres.  reg^rO,  to  rule. 

Perf.  rexiss^,  to  have  ruled. 

Put.  rectHriis  ess<S,  to  he  about 
to  rule. 

Geeund. 

Gen.  regeadi,  of  ruling, 

Dat.  regeadO,  for  ruling, 
Acc.  regeadiiai,  ruling, 

Ahl.  regeadd,  hy  ruling. 


regite,  ride  ye. 

j regit otO,  ye  shall  rule, 

I regaato,  they  shall  rule, 

Paeticiple. 

, Pres,  r egeas,  ruling. 

Put.  rectferiis,  about  to  rule. 
Supine. 


I Acc,  rectam,  to  rule, 

I A hi.  rectii,  to  rule,  be  ruled. 


82 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


TRIED  CONJUGATION:  CONSONANT  YEEBS. 
210.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Regor,  I am  ruled. — Stem, 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf. 

regor,  regl, 

Indicative  Mood. 
Pkesent  Tense. 

1 am  ruled. 


Perf.  Ind. 


SINGULAR. 

reg5i* 
regaris,  or 
regitiir ; 


regelj^r 
regel^aris,  or 
reg€l>alt4r ; 


Imperfect. 

1 was  ruled^ 


PLURAL. 

regimar 

regimiiiii 

regwmitar. 


regelJ>amiip 

regel^aminl 

regel>aiatiip. 


regS^r 
regepis,  or 
regetiip ; 


rect&s  sikisa^ 
rect&s 
reetias  est ; 


rectiis 

rectiis  ^ras 
rectiis  ; 


rectiis  erO  ^ 
recttts  ^ris 
rect&s  ; 


Future. 

I shall  or  mil  he  ruled. 

reg^miir 
regemini 
regeaatiir. 

Perfect. 

I have  been  or  was  ruled. 

recti  stimiis 
recti  estis 
recti  Slant. 

Pluperfect. 

1 had  been  ruled. 

recti  Gramiis 
recti  Gratis 
recti  ^rant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 

recti  ^rimiis 
recti  iritis 
recti  ^runt. 


\ 

‘A 


X' 


> 


1 See  209,  foot-notes. 


2 See  206,  foot-notes. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


85 


- 4- 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

I may  or  can  hear. 


SINGULAR. 


audi^m 
audias 
audi&t ; 


PLURAL. 

audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant. 


Imperfect. 


audirem 
audires 
audiret ; 


I mighty  could^  would^  or  should  hear. 

audiremiis 

audiretis 

audirent. 


audiverim, 
audiveris 
audiverit ; 


Perfect. 

I may  have  heard. 

audlv^rimns 

audiveritis 

audiverint. 

Pluperfect. 


I might 
audivissem 
audivisses 
audivisset ; 


, could ^ would.,  or  should  have  heard. 

audivissem&s 

audivissetis 

audivissent. 


Imp  E 

Pres,  audi,  hear  thou  ; 

Put.  audite,  thou  shall  hear., 
audite,  he  shall  hear  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres,  audire,  to  hear. 

Perf.  audivisse,  to  have  heard. 
Put.  audltltrns  esse,  to  I 
about  to  hear. 


lATIVE. 

I audite,  hear  ye. 

I auditote,  ' ye  shall  hear., 

I audinnte,  they  shall  hear. 

Participle. 

Pres,  audiens,  hearing. 

'■  Put.  audltHriis,  about  to  hear. 


Geeund.  Supine, 

Gen.  audiendi,  of  hearing. 

Dai.  audiendo,  for  hearing. 

Aec.  audiendiim,  hearing.  Ace.  auditiim,  to  hear. 

Abl.  audiendo,  by  hearing.  Abl.  auditn,  to  hear^  be  heard. 


86 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION:  I VERBS. 
212.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Audior,  I am  heard, — Stem,  audi, 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Perf.  Ind. 

audltiis  sum. 
Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
lam  heard. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audior. 


Pres.  Inf. 
audiri, 


SINGULAR. 

audior 

audiris,  or  r^ 
auditiir ; 


audiel>ar 
audiei>aris,  or  r^ 
audiefeatiir ; 


Imperfect. 
I was  heard. 


PLURAL. 

audimiir 

audimini 

audinntiir. 


audiel>amiir 

audiel>amiiii 

audiel&antiir. 


audi^r 

audieris,  or  r^ 
audietur ; 


Future. 

I shall  or  will  he  heard. 

audiemiir 
audiemini 
audientur. 

Perfect. 

I have  been  heard. 


auditiis  siim^ 

auditi  s&miis 

audltias  ^s 

auditl  estis 

auditus  est ; 

auditi  sunt. 

Pluperfect. 

I had  been  heard. 

audit&s  ^r^m  ^ 

auditi  gramiis 

auditiis  ^ras 

auditi  Gratis 

auditiis  ^riit ; 

auditi  ^rant. 

Future  Perfect. 

I shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 

auditiis  ^ro  ^ 

auditi  ^rimiis 

auditus  iSris 

auditi  iritis 

auditiis  ^rit ; 

auditi  ^runt. 

1 See  206.  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE, 


87 


Subjunctive. 


SINGULAR. 

nudior 

audiaris,  or  re 
audiat&r ; 


Present. 

I may  or  can  he  heard. 

PLURAL. 

audiamar 

audiamiiil 

audiaiatiir. 


Imperfect. 


/ mighty  could^  would^  or  should  he  heard. 


audlr^r 

audireris,  or  r^ 
audiretttr ; 


audiremiir 

audiremini 

audirentur. 


Perfect. 


auditiis  sim ' 
auditiis  sis 
audlttts  sit ; 


I may  have  heen  heard. 

auditi  sim^s 
auditi  sitis 
auditi  sint. 


Pluperfect. 


I might.,  could,  loould,  or  shoidd 

audit&s  ess^m' 
audit-fts  essSs 
auditiis  ess^t ; 


have  heen  heard. 

auditi  css€mits 
auditi  essetis 
auditi  essent. 


Imperative. 

Pres,  audiri,  he  thou  heard ; I audimini,  he  ye  heard. 

Put.  auditor,  thou  shall  he  heard, \ 

auditor,  he  shall  he  heard;  1 audiuntor,  they  shall  he  heard. 


Infinitive. 


Participle. 


Pres,  audiri,  to  he  heard. 

Perf.  auditiis  ess^,'  to  have  heen 
heard. 

Put.  auditiim  iri,  to  he  about 
to  he  heard. 


Perf.  auditiis,  heard. 

Ger.  audiencliis,  to  he  heard, 
deserving  to  he  heard. 


1 See  206,  foot-notes. 


88 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONS. 


YEKBAL  I^^TLECTIOi^S. 


213.  Principal  Parts.  — The  Principal  Parts  are 
formed  in  the  four  conjugations  with  the  following  end- 
ings, including  final  a,  e or  of  the  stem  : ^ 


IL 


, are, 

1.  In  a few  verbs : 

eo,  ere, 

2.  In  most  verbs : 


atum. 


etum. 


eo. 

ere. 

ui. 

itum. 

1.  In  consonant  stems : 

III.  ^ 

0, 

Sre, 

si. 

tum. 

2.  In  vowel  stems . 

. 0, 

ere. 

i, 

tum. 

lY. 

io. 

ire. 

ivi. 

itum. 

Examples. 

1.  Amo, 

amare. 

amavi, 

amatum,  to  love. 

TT  ( 1.  Bclco, 

delere. 

delevi. 

deletum,  to  destroy. 

( 2.  Moneo, 

monere. 

monui. 

monitum,  to  advise. 

III.  \ I- 

carpere. 

carpsi. 

carptum,  to  pluck. 

( 2.  Acuo, 

acuere. 

acui. 

acutum,  to  sharpen. 

lY.  Audio, 

audire. 

audivi. 

auditum,  to  hear. 

214,  Compounds. — Compounds  of  verbs  with  dissyl- 
labic supines  generally  change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming 
the  principal  parts  : 


1.  When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i for  e of  the  simple  verb  : 

1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e : ^ 

Rego,  regere,  rexi,  rectum,  to  rule. 

Di-rigo,  dirigere,  direxi,  directura,  to  direct. 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e : ^ 


Teneo, 

De-tineo, 


tenere, 

detinere, 


tenui, 

detinui. 


tentura, 

detentum. 


to  hold, 
to  detain. 


II.  Wh^n  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i for  a of  the  simple  verb : 

1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect  and 
the  supine  takes  e,  ^ sometimes  a : 


^ 1 We  class  Hi  and  etum  with  the  regular  formations,  because  they  are  the  full  and 
original  forms  from  which  the  more  common  td  and  Uum  are  derived : thus  the  full 
forms  in  moneo  would  be  monlvi,  monetum.  By  dropping  e in  monevi,  and  by  chang- 
ing the  consonant  v into  its  corresponding  vowel  we  have  monui.  So  by  weaken- 
ing e into  X in  monetum,  we  have  monitum. 

2 The  favorite  vowel  before  two  consonants  or  a double  consonant.  See  28,  2. 


YERBAL  INFLECTIONS, 


89 


Capio,  capere,  cepi, 

Ac-cipio,  accipere,  accepi, 


captum,  to  take, 

acceptum,  to  accept. 


2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i and  the  Supine  takes  e ; ^ 


raptum,  to  seize. 

direptum,  to  tear  asunder. 


Rapio,  rapere,  rapui, 

Bi-ripio,  diripere,  diripui. 


For  Reduplicatiori  in  compounds see  255,  I.  4 ; other  peculiarities  ot 
pounds  will  he  noticed  under  the  separate  conjugations. 


215.  Entire  Conjugation. — From  an  inspection  of 
the  paradigms,  it  will  be  seen,  that  all  the  forms  of  any  reg- 
ular verb,  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  of  both  voices, 
arrange  themselves  in  three  distinct  groups  or  systems  : 

I.  The  Present  System,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as 
its  basis,  comprises 

1.  The  Present^  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative — Active  and 
Passive, 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperrfeci  Siibjunctive — Active  and  Passive. 

8.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle. 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem.,  fonnd  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  by  dropping  the  ending  re  of  the  Active  or  ri 
of  the  Passive  in  Conj.  I.  II.  and  IV.  and  ere  of  the  Active  or  i 
of  the  Passive  in  Conj.  III. : amdre,  present  stem  ama  ; monere, 
mone;  regere,  eeg;  audire,  audi. 

II.  The  Perfect  System,  mth  the  Perfect  Indicative 
Active  as  its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  voice 

1.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  fonnd  in 
the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  by  dropping  i ; amdvi,  perfect  stem 
AMAv;  monui,  monu. 

III.  The  Supine  System,  with  the  Supine  as  its  basis, 
comprises 

1.  The  Supines  in  um  and  u,  the  former  of  which  with  iri 
forms  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive. 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles,  the  for- 


^ Tlie  favodte  vowel  l>efore  two  consonants  or  a double  consonant.  See  28, 2. 


SYNOPSIS  ,OF  CONJUGATION. 


mer  of  whicli  with  e$se  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive,  and 
the  latter  of  which  with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  mm 
forms  in  the  Passive  those  tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to 
Perfect  System. 

These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem,  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um:  amatum,  supine  stem  amat;  monitum, 


MONIT. 

216.  These  three  Systems  of  Forms  are  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing Synopsis  of  Conjugation. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION, 
y ,\  217.  FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

amo,  amarcj  amavi,  amatum. 
2.  Present  System  : Stem,  dma. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


: IMPEE.  INFINITIVE. 

ama  amare 


PARTICIPLE. 

amans. 


Pres,  amo 
Imp.  Smabam 
Put.  amabo 


amem 

amarem 


amato 

Gerund,,  amandi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System  : Stem,  dmdv. 


Pcrf.  amavT  amaverim 

Plup.  amaverSm  amavissem 

FP.  amavero 


amavisse. 


4.  Supine  System  : Stem,  dmdt. 


I amaturus  esse  [amaturus. 


Fut. 


Supine,  Smatum,  amatu. 

II.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 
amor,  amM,  amatiis  siim, 
2.  Present  System:  Stem,  dma. 


Pres,  amor  amer 

Imp.  SmabSr  amarSr 

Fut.  Smabor 


amare  amari 


amator 


Gerundive,  amandus. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


91 


3.  Supine  System  : Stem,  dmdt. 


IKDIOATIVE. 

Perf,  Smatus  sum 
Plup.  amatus  eram 
F.  P.  amatiis  Sro 
Fut. 


1 SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

amatus  sim 

amatus  esse 

amatus. 

1 amatus  essem 

1 

amatum  Irl 

218.  SECOND  CONJUGATION. 
I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Peincipal  Paets. 


moaeo,  monere,  monui,  monitiim. 


2.  Peesent  System  : Stem,  m6ne. 


Pm.  moneo 

moneam 

mone 

monere 

Imp.  monebam 
Fut.  monebo 

monerem 

moneto 

monens. 


Gerund^  monendi,  do,  etc. 


Perf, 

Plup. 

F.P. 


3.  Peeeect  System:  Stem,  m^nu. 


monui 

monuerim  1 

monuisse 

monueram 

monuissem 

monuero 

1 

Fut. 


4.  Supine  System  : Stem,  m6nit. 

I 1 I monituras  esse  Imonlturus. 

Supine,  monitum,  monitu. 


II.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 


moneor,  moneri,  monitus  sum. 


2.  Present  System  : Stem,  7n6ne. 


Pres. 

moneor 

monear 

monere 

moneri 

Imp. 

monebar 

monerer 

Fut. 

monebor 

monetor 

Gerundive.,  monendus. 


3.  Supine  System  : Stem,  mdmt. 


Fut. 


monitus  sum 

monitus  sim 

monitus  esse 

monitus  eram 
monitus  ero 

monitus  essem 

monitum  Iri 

monitiis. 


92 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


219.  THIRD  COR'JUGATIOi^^'. 

1.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 
rego,  regere,  rexi,  recttim. 
2.  Present  System  : Stem,  reg. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres,  rego 
Imp.  regebam 
Fut.  regam 


SUBJUNCTTVE. 

rSgam 

regerem 


IMPER. 

rege 


INFINITIVE. 

regere 


regito 

Gerund^  regendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System  : Stem,  rex. 


Fut. 


4.  Supine  System  : Stem,  reel, 

1 I recturus  esse 

Supine^  rectum,  rectu. 

11.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

regor,  regi,  rectiis  siim. 

2.  Present  System  : Stem,  reg. 


Pres,  regdr 
Imp.  regebar 
Fut.  regar 


PARDICTPLE. 

regens. 


rexi 

rexerim 

rexisse 

rexeram 

rexissem 

rexero 

1 recturus. 


regar 

regere 

regi 

regerer 

regitor 

Gerundive^  regendus. 
3.  Supine  System  : Stem,  rect. 

rectus. 


Fut. 


rectus  siim 

rectus  sim 

1 

rectus  esse 

rectus  eram 
rectus  ero 

rectus  essem 

1 

1 

rectum  iri 

220,  FOURTH  COOTUGATIOK 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

audio,  audire,  audivi,  audittlm. 


SYN-OPSiS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


93 


2.  Present  System  : Stem,  aucU, 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres,  audio 
Imp.  audiebam 
FuL  audiam 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPEE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PAKTICIPLE, 

audiam 

audi 

audire 

audiens. 

audirem 

audito 

Gerund.,  audiendi,  do,  etc. 


3.  Perfect  System  ; Stem,  audiv. 


Perf. 
Plup. 
F.  P. 


audivi 

audiverim 

audivisse 

audiveram 

audivissem 

•audivero 

4.  Supine  System  : Stem,  audit, 

1 I auditurus  esse  j auditurus. 

Supine,  auditum,  auditu. 


11.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 


audior,  audiii,  auditus  sum. 


2.  Present  System  : Stem,  audL 


Pres,  audior 
Imp.  audiebar 
Fut  audiar 


audiar 

audire 

audiri 

audirer 

auditor 

Gerundive,  audiendus. 


Perf. 
Flap. 
F.  P. 
Fut. 


3.  Supine  System  : Stem,  audit. 


auditiis  siim 
audltiis  eram 
auditus  ero 


auditus  sim 
auditus  essem 

1 auditus  esse 

|auditum  iri 

auditus. 


THIKD  CC-N'JII-G-ATIONr  VERBS  IN'  10. 


221.  A few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the 
Present  Indicative  in  io,  io.r,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth 
Conjugation.  They  are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the 
Fourth  wherever  those  endings  have  two  successive  vowels. 
These  verbs  are 

1.  The  following  with  their  compounds : 

Ctipio,  to  take;  exipio,  to  desire;  /<Scio,  to  make;  fSdio,  to  dig; 
fugio,  to  flee ; jacio,  to  throw ; pario,  to  bear ; qu&iio,  to  shake ; r&pio, 
to  seize ; sdpio,  to  be  wise. 


94 


THIRD  CONJUGATION.  VERBS  IN  10. 


^2.  The  compounds  of  the  obsolete  Z^ao,  to  entice,  and  specio^  to  look ; 
allicio^  elicio^  illicio^  pellicio^  etc. ; aspicio,  conspicio,  etc. 

3.  The  Deponent  Verbs:  grMior,  to  go;  mdrior,  to  die;  patior,  to 
suffer.  See  225. 

^ 222.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Capio,  I take, — Stem,  cdp. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 

capio,  capere,  cepi,  captiim. 

Indicative  Mood. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

capio,  capis,  capit; 

capimus,  cSpitis,  cSpiunt. 

Imp. 

capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat ; capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

Eut. 

capiam,  -ies,  -iet ; 

capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 

Perf. 

cepi,  -isti,  -it ; 

cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt,  or  erS, 

Plup. 

ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ; 

ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Put.  Perf.  cepero,  -eris,  erit ; 

ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres. 

capiam,  -ias,  -iat ; 

capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

Imp. 

caperem,  -eres,  -eret ; 

caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

Perf. 

ceperim,  -eris,  -erit; 

ceperimus,  -eritis,  erint. 

Plup. 

cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ; 

cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

Imperative. 

Pres. 

cape ; 

capite. 

Put. 

capito, 

capitote, 

capito ; 

capiunto. 

Infinitive. 

Paeticiplb. 

Pres. 

capere. 

pRES.  capiens. 

Perf. 

cepisse. 

Put. 

capturus  esse. 

Put.  capturus. 

Gerund. 

Supine. 

Gen. 

cSpiendl. 

Dat. 

capiendo. 

Acc. 

citpiendum. 

Acc.  captum. 

Ahl 

capiendo. 

Ahl.  captu. 

95 


THIRD  CONJUGATION.  VERBS  IN  10. 


Pres.  Ind. 
capior, 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Fut. 

Perf. 

Plup. 


223.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Capior,  I ctni  taken, — Stem,  cdp,. 

principal  parts. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind. 

capi,  captUs  siim. 

Indicative  Mood. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.^ 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ; capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur, 
capiebar, -iebaris,-iebatur;  capiebamur,  -iebaminl, -iebantiir. 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietiir;  capiemur,  -iemini,  -ientur. 

captus  sum,  es,  est;  capti  siimus,  estis,  sunt, 

captus  eram,  eras,  erat;  capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 


Fut.  Perf.  captus  ero,  eris,  erit ; capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


Subjunctive. 


Pres. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatiir ; 

capiamur,  -iamini,  -iantiir. 

Imp. 

caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ; 

caperemur,  -eremini,  -erentur. 

Perf. 

captus  sim,  sis,  sit ; 

capti  simus,  sitis,  sint. 

Plup. 

captus  essem,  esses,  esset ; 

capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 

Imperative. 

Pres. 

capere ; 

capimini. 

Fut. 

capitor, 

capitor ; 

capiuntor. 

Infikitive. 

Participle. 

Pres. 

capi. 

Perf. 

captus  esse. 

Perf.  captus. 

Fut. 

captum  iri. 

Ger.  cSpiendus. 

224.  SYNOPSIS. 

I.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

5,  capere,  cepi,  captiim. 
2.  Present  System:  Stem,  capi. 


INDICATIVE.  1 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPEK. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLS. 

Pres.  capio 

capiam 

cape 

cSpere 

cSpiens. 

Imp.  cSpiebam 

caperem 

cSpito 

Fut.  cSpiSm 

Gerundy  capiendi,  do,  etc. 


96 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


3.  Perfect  System:  Stem,  cep. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

LMPER, 

INFINITIVE. 

Perf.  cepi 

ceperim 

cepisse 

Plup.  ceperam 

F.  P.  ceperO 

cepissem 

Fut 


4.  Supine  System:  Stem,  capt. 

i I I capturus  esse  | capturus. 

Supine^  captum,  captu. 


II.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

1.  Principal  Parts. 

capior,  capi,  captus  s&m. 


2.  Present  System:  Stem,  cajoi. 


Pres,  capior 
Imp.  capiebar 
Fut.  capiar 


capiar 

capere 

capi 

caperer 

capitor 

Gerundive^  capiendus. 


3.  Supine  System  : Stem,  capt. 


Perf.  captus  sum 
Plup.  captus  eram 
F.  P.  captus  ero 
Fut. 


captiis  sim 
captus  essem 

captus  esse 

captum  m 

captus. 


DEPONEISTT  VEKBS. 

225.  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the 
Passive  Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.  But 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification ; sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle : hortandus^  to  be  exhorted ; expertus^  tried. 

3.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active 
form  is  generally  used. 


SYmPSlS  OF  CONJUGATIOK 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

226.  Plortor,  I exhort. 

I.  Principal  Parts. 
hortor,  hortari,  hortatfis  siim. 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


97 


II.  Present  System  : Stem,  horta. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pm.  hortor  1 
Im'p,  hortabar 
Fut,  hortabor 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPEE. 

INFINITIVE. 

horter 

hortare 

hortari 

hortarer 

hortator 

PAETI  CIPLE. 

hortans. 


Gerund^  hortandi. 

III.  Supine  System  : Stem,  hortat. 


Perf.  hortatus  sum 
Plup.  hortatus  eram 
F.  P.  hortatus  ero 
Fut 


hortatus  sim 

hortatus  esse 

hortatus  essem 

hortaturus  esse] 

hortMiis. 


Pres,  verebr 
Imp.  verebar 
Fut.  verebor 


Supine.,  hortatum,  hortatu. 

SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

227.  Vereor,  I fear. 

I.  Principal  Parts. 
vereor,  vereri,  veritiis  stim. 

II.  Present  System  : Stem,  vh'e. 
Iverere 


verear 

vererer 


vereri 


Iverens. 


iveretor 
Gerund,  verendi. 


Gerundive,  verendus. 

III.  Supine  System  : Stem,  vlnt. 


Perf.  veritus  sum 
Plup.  veritus  erSm 
F.  P.  veritus  ero 
Fut. 


veritus  sim 

veritus  essem 

1 

1 

I veritiis. 


Supine,  veritiim,  veritu. 

THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

228.  Sequor,  I follow. 


verituriis  esse  Iveriturus. 

•s, 


I.  Principal  Parts. 
sequor,  sequi,  secutas  siim. 


1 The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers : hortiir. 
bortdrU  hortatur,  hortamiir.  hortamini,  hortantdr.  All  the  forms  in  this  synopsis 
have  the  active  meaning,  / exhort.  I was  exhorting,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundtve.  which 
has  the  passive  force,  deserving  to  be  exhorted,  to  be  exhorted.  From  the  passive 
force  the  Gerundive  cannot  be  used  in  intransitive  Dep.  verbs,  except  in  an  taper- 
sonal  sense.  See  301, 1. 


98 


DEPOKENT  VEKBS. 


IL  Present  System  : Stem,  sequ. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pm.  sequor 
Imp.  sequebar 
Fut.  sequar 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Isequar 

sequerer 


IMPEE.  j INFINITIVE. 

sequere  isequi 


sequitorl 
Gerund^  sequendi. 


PAETICIPLB. 

sequens. 


Perf.  secutus  sum 

secutus  sim 

secutus  esse 

Plup.  secutiis  erSm 

secutus  essem 

F.  P.  secutus  ero 

Fut. 

secuturus  esse 

Gerundive^  sequendus. 
III.  Supine  System  : Stem,  secuL 

secutus. 

secutdrus. 

Supine^  secutum,  secutu. 

229.  Patior,  I suffer, 

I.  Principal  Parts. 
patior,  pati,  passus  sum. 

II.  Present  System  : Stem,  pM. 


Pres,  patior 

Imp.  patiebar 

Fut.  patiar 

patiar 

paterer 

jpatere 

Ipatitor 

pati 

pStiens. 

Gerund.,  patiendi. 

Gerundive., 

patiendus. 

III. 

Supine  System  : Stem,  pass. 

Perf.  passus  sum 
Plup.  passus  eram 
F.  P.  passus  ero 

Fut. 

passus  sim 
passus  essem 

passus  esse 

passurus  esse 

passus. 

passdriis.  ^ 

Bupine^  passum,  passu. 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

230.  Blandior,  I flatter. 

I.  Principal  Parts. 

blandior,  blandiri,  blanditiis  siim. 

II.  Present  System  : Stem,  hiandi. 


Pres,  blandior 
Imp.  blandiebSr 
Fut.  blandiar 


blandiSr 

blandirer 


I blandire 


blandiens. 


blandiri 

j blandi- 
tor 

Gerund.^  blandiendi.  Gerundive.,  blandiendus. 


PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION. 


99 


III.  Supine  System  : Stem,  hlandU.  ^ 


INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  blanditus  sum 
Plup.  blanditus  eram 
F.  F.  blanditus  ero 
Fut 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPEE. 

INFINITIVE. 

blanditus  sim 
blanditus  essem 

blanditus  esse 

blanditurus 

esse 

PARTICIPLE. 

blanditus. 


blanditurus. 


Supine^  blanditum,  blanditu. 


PERIPHRASTIC  COHJUGATIOH. 

231.  The  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  formed 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  swm,  de- 
notes an  intended  or  future  action  : 


Amaturus  sum,  I am  about  to  love. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  amaturus  sum' 

Imp,  amaturus  eram 

Fut.  amaturus  ero 

Perf.  amaturus  fui 

Plup.  amaturus  fueram 

Fut.  Perf.  Smatur^  fuero ' 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus  sim 
amaturus  essem 

amaturus  fuerim 
amaturus  fuissem 


INFINITIVE. 

amaturus  esse. 


amaturus  fuisse. 


232.  The  Passive  Pei^pheastic  Conjugation,  formed 
by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  sum,  denotes  necessity  or 
duty. 

Amandus  sum,  I must  he  loved. 

amandus  sim  amandus  esse, 

amandus  essem 

amandus  fuerim  amandus  fuisse, 

amandus  fuissem 


233.  The  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  tern^  in- 
cludes all  forms  compounded  of  participles  with  sum  ; but  as  the  Pres.  art. 
with  sum  is  equivalent  to  the  Pres.  Ind.  {amans  est  = amai\  and  is  accord- 
ingly seldom  used,  and  as  the  Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense, 
an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation,  the  term  Periphrastic  is  gener- 
ally limited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 

1 The  periphrastic  forms  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers. 
amaturus  sum.,  es,  est.  The  Fut.  Perf.  is  exceedingly  rare. 

2 Or,  1 deserve  (ought)  to  he  loved. 


Pres.  amandus  sum 

Imp.  amandus  eram 

Fui.  amandus  ero 

Perf.  Smandus  fui 

Plup.  amandus  fueram 

Fut.  Perf.  amandus  fuero 


100 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 


PEOULIAKITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 

234.  Perfects  in  avi,  evi,  ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v and  suffer  contraction  before 
B and  r.  Thus 


A-i  and  a-e  become  a : amavisti  (amaisti),  amasti ; amaveram  (amae- 
ram),  amaram  ; amavisse  (amaisse),  amasse. 

£l-i  and  e-e  become  e : nevi  (to  spin),  nevisti  (neisti),  nesii ; neverunt 
(neerunt),  nerunt. 

I-i  becomes  i:  audivisti  (audiisti),  audisti;  audivissem  (audiissem), 
audissem. 

1.  Perfects  in  Ivi  sometimes  drop  v in  anj  of  tbeir  fonns,  but  generali/ 
without  contraction,  except  before  5 : audivi.^  audii.^  audiit.,  audieram ; audi- 
msti^  audiisti  or  audisti. 

2.  Perfects  in  ovi. — The  perfects  of  nosco.,  to  know,  and  moveo.,  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  v and  suffer  contraction  before  r and  s'.  novisti.,  nosti. 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xi  sometimes  drop  is.,  or  sis:  scripsisti,  scrip sti ; 
dixisse,  dixe ; accessistis,  accestis. 

' ^ 235.  Ere  for  erunt,  as  the  ending  of  the  third  Pers.  PI.  of  the 

Perf.  Ind.  Act.,  is  common  in  the  historians. 


The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.  In  poetry  erunt  occurs. 


236.  Re  for  ris  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Pers.  of  the  Pass,  is 
rare  in  the  Pres.  Indie. 


> 237.  Eio,  due,  fac,  and  fer,  for  dice,  dace,  face,  and  fh'e,  are  the 
G ^Imperatives  of  dico,  duco,  facio,  and /“ero,  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 


1.  Dice,  duce,  andifdce,  occur  in  poetry. 

2.  Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  of  facio  which 
change  a into  i : confice. 


238.  tJndus  and  undi  for  endus  and  endi  occur  as  the  endings  of 
the  Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Gonj.  III.  and  IV. : dicundus,  from  dlco,  to 
say  ; potiundus,  from  potior,  to  obtain. 

239.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms. — Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical- 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of 
antiquity  or  solemnity.  Thus  forms  in 


1.  ibam  for  ieham,  in  the  Imp.  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV. : sciham  for  scieham. 
See  Imp.  of  eo,  to  go,  295. 

2.  ibo,  ibor,  for  iam,  iar,  in  the  Fut.  of  Conj.  IV. : servibo  for  ser- 
viam ; opperlhor  for  opperiar.  See  Fut.  of  eo,  295. 

3.  im  for  am  or  cm,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. : edXm,  edls,  etc.,  for  Mdm,  ds, 
etc. ; duim  (from  duo,  for  do),  for  dem. — In  sXm,  vHim,  nolim,  mdlitn  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending. 


COMPARATIYE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS, 


101 


4.  asso,  esso,  and  so,  in  the  Fut.  Perf.,  and  assim,  essim,  and  sim, 
in  the  Perf.  Subj.  of  Conj.  I.  II.  III. : fazo  (facso)  for  fecero  ^ (from  facio) ; 
faxim  for  fecerim  ausim  for  ausus  sim  (for  auserim^  from  audeo).  Rare 
examples  are : levasso  for  levavero  ; prohihesso  for  prohibuero  ; capso  for 
cepero  ; axo  for  egero  ; jusso  for  jussero  ; occisit  for  occiderit  ; taxis  for 
teiigh'is. 

5.  to  and  mino  for  tor^  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Fut.  Imp.  Pass,  and  Dep. : arbitrato^  arbitramino  for  arbi- 
trator ; utunto  for  utuntor. 

6.  ier  for  i in  the  Pres.  Pass.  Infin. : dmarier  for  amdri ; viderier 
for  videri. 


240.  COMPAPvATlYE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
I.  Present  System. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


Conj.  I. 

Conj.  II. 

Conj.  III. 

Stem,  dmct. 

mbne. 

Ind.  Pees,  amo  r^amao 

moneo 

rego 

amas^ 

mones  2 

regis 

Imp.  amabam 

monebam 

regebam 

amabas 

monebas 

regebas 

Fut.  amabo 

monebo 

regam 

amabis 

monebis 

reges 

Sub.  Pres,  amem^amaim 

moneam 

regam 

ames 

moneas 

regas 

Imp.  amarem 

monerem 

regerem 

amares 

moneres 

regeres 

Imp.  Pres,  ama  ^ 

mone 

rege^ 

Fut.  amato 

moneto 

regito 

Inf.  Pres,  amare 

monere 

regere 

Par.  Pres,  amans 

monens 

regens 

Gerund,  amandl. 

monendi. 

regendi. 

coNj.  ly. 
audi. 
audio 
audls 
audiebam 
audiebas 
audiSm 
audies 
audiam 
audias 
audirem 
audires 
audi 
audito 
audire 
audiens 
1 audiendi. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Ind.  Pres.  amor 

moneor 

regor 

amaris  (re) 

moneris  (re) 

regeris  (re) 

Imp.  amabar 

monebar 

regebar 

amabaris  (re) 

monebaris  (re) 

regebaris  (re) 

Fut.  amabor 

monebor 

regar 

amaberis  (re) 

moneberis  (re) 

regeris  (re) 

Sub.  Pres.  amer  =:amair 

monear 

regar 

ameris  (re) 

monearis  (re) 

regaris  (re) 

Imp.  amarer 

monerer 

regerer 

amareris  (re) 

monereris  (re) 

regereris  (re) 

Imp.  Pres.  amare 

monere 

regere 

Fut.  amator 

monetor 

regitor 

Inf.  Pres.  amari 

moneri 

regi 

Ger.  amandus. 

monendus. 

regendus. 

audior 

audiris  (re) 

audiebar 

audiebaris  (re) 

audiar 

audieris  (re) 

audiar 

audiaris  (re) 

audirer 

audireris  (re) 

audire 

auditor 

audiri 

audiendus. 


1 Remember  that  r in  ero  and  erim  was  originally  s.  See  35,  and  foot-note  2,  p.  70. 

2 In  the  same  manner  all  the  persons  of  both  numbers  may  bo  compared. 


102 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CO]S^JUGATIONS. 


II.  Perfect  System. 


CONJ.  I. 

ACTIVE  VOICE 

CONJ.  II. 

CoNJ.  III. 

CoNj.  lY. 

Stem,  arndv. 

mbnu. 

rex. 

audlv. 

Ind.  Perf.  amavi 

monul 

rexi 

audivi 

amavisti 

monuisti 

rexisti 

audivisti 

Plup.  amaveram 

monueram 

rexeram 

audiveram 

amaveras 

monueras 

rexeras 

audiveras 

F.  Perf.  amavero 

monuero 

rexero 

audivero 

amaveris 

monueris 

rexeris 

audiveris 

Sub.  Perf.  amaverim 

monuerim 

rexerim 

audiverim 

amaveris 

monueris 

rexeris 

audiveris 

Plup.  amavissem 

monuissem 

rexissem 

audivissem 

amavisses 

monuisses 

rexisses 

audivisses 

Inf.  Perf.  amavisse. 

monuisse. 

rexisse. 

audivissS. 

III. 

Supine  System. 

Stem,  &mdt. 

ACTIVE  VOICE 

mbmt. 

rect. 

audit. 

Inf.  Put.  amaturus  esse 

moniturus  esse 

recturus  esse 

auditurus  essS 

Par.  Fut.  amaturiis 

moniturus 

recturus 

auditurus 

Supine,  amatum. 

monitum. 

rectum. 

auditum. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Ind.  Perf.  amatus  sum 

monitus  sum 

rectus  sum 

amatus  es 

monitus  es 

rectus  es 

Plup.  amatus  eram 

monitus  eram 

rectus  eram 

amatus  eras 

monitus  eras 

rectus  eras 

F.  Perf.  amatus  ero 

monitus  ero 

rectus  ero 

amatus  eris 

monitiis  eris 

rectus  eris 

Sub.  Perf.  amatus  sim 

monitus  sim 

rectus  sim 

amatus  sis 

monitus  sis 

rectus  sis 

Plup.  amatus  essem 

monitus  essem 

rectus  essem 

amatus  esses 

monitus  esses 

rectus  esses 

Inf.  Perf.  amatus  esse 

monitus  esse 

rectus  esse 

Fut.  amatum  iri 

monitum  iri 

rectum  iri 

Par.  Perf.  amatus. 

monitus. 

rectus. 

auditus  sum 
auditus  es 
audltiis  eram 
auditus  eras 
auditus  ero 
auditus  eris 
auditus  sim 
auditus  sis 
auditus  essem 
auditus  esses 
auditus  esse 
auditum  Iri 
auditus. 


1.  From  this  Synopsis  it  will  be  seen  : 

1)  That  the  Four  Conjugations  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  Principal  Parts  and  in  the  endings  of  the  Present  System. 

2)  That  even  these  differences  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the 
union  of  different  final  letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  sys^ 
tern  of  endings. 

3)  That  the  Four  Conjugations  are  thus  only  varieties  of  one  general 
system  of  inflection. 


ANALYSIS  OF  VEKBAL  ENDINGS, 


103 


ANALYSIS  OF  VEKBAL  ENDINGS. 

(^w241.  The  endings  which  are  appended  to  the  stems  in 
the  formation  of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain 

three  distinct  elements  : 

^S^E-SiGN  : ha  in  ama-hd-m^  reg-e-ha-s. 

The  Mood-Yowel  : a in  mone-a-s,  reg-a-s. 

3.  The  Personal  Ending  : s in  mdne-a-s,  reg-a-s. 


dma-s. 


I.  Tense-Signs. 

242.  The  Present  is  without  any  tense-sign  : 
So  also  the  Future  ^ in  Conj.  III.  and  IV. 

243.  The  other  tenses  ^ have  the  following 

Tense-Signs. 

Ind.  Imp.  ba:  ama-ba-s:  reg-e-ba-s. 

Put.  hi:  ama-bi-s;  mone-bi-s. 

Plup.  dra : amav-era-s : rex-era-s. 

F.  Perf.  eri : amav-eri-s : audiv-eri-s. 

( reg-ere-s,  for  reg-era-I-s.^ 

( ama-re-s,  for  ama-era-T-s.^ 
Perf.  eri : rex-eri-s : audiv-eri-s. 

Plup.  issa : rex-isse-s,  for  rex-issa-I-s.* * 


SuBJ.  Imp. 


era : 


II.  Mood-Signs. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the 
Mood. 

245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a long  vowel — a,  or  i — 


1 This  Future  is  in  form  a Present  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  full  the 
force  of  the  Future  Indicative.  See  foot-note  5 below. 

2 These  are  all  compounded  with  the  tenses  of  sum : Thus  in  ama-hdm 
and  amd-bd,,  the  ending  ham  = erdm  is  the  Imperfect  from  the  stem  hliu^ 
the  old  form  oi  fu  in  fui,,  and  bO  = erd  is  the  Future  from  the  same  stem. 
In  dmdv-erdm  and  dmdr-ero,^  the  endings  erdm  and  erb  are  the  Imperfect  and 
Future  of  sum  from  the  stem  es.  In  reg-erem  the  ending  Mm  is  for  esem, 
the  ancient  form  of  essem  / in  rex-erim^  enm  is  for  esim  — sim,  and  in  rex' 
iasem,^  issem  is  for  essem. 

* See  foot-note  5 below. 

4 This  e comes  from  a-l^  of  which  the  I alone  is  the  true  Mood-Sign. 

® The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods,— the 
Subjunctive  with  the  sign  a,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  sometimes 


104 


PEESONAl  ENDINGS. 


before  the  Personal  Endings  : mUne-d-miXs,  dm-e-tnUs, 
s-l-mUs,  But 


1.  This  vowel  is  shortened  before  final  m and  t,  and  sometimes  in  the 
Perfect  before  s,  mm  and  tis : moneam^  amH^  sit^  fuMs^  amaverimus^ 
amaveritis. 

246.  The  Imperative  is  disting. 

Endings.  See  247,  3. 


\III.  Persoi^al  Endings. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancieiS 
ronominal  stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pro- 


nouns  in  English.  They 

are  as 

follows  : 

PERSON. 

ACT. 

PASS. 

MEANING. 

Sing.'^  First  Pers.., 

m, 

L 

/. 

Second., 

S, 

ris, 

thou,  you. 

Third., 

tur. 

he,  she,  it. 

Plur.^  Firsts 

mus, 

mur. 

we. 

Second, 

tiS, 

mini,  2 

you. 

Third, 

nt, 

ntur. 

they. 

contained  in  e for  a-i.  Thus : Subjunctive,  mone-d-mus.,  audi-d-tis ; Opta- 
tive, s-l-mus.,  rexer-l-tis.^  am-e-mus  for  ama-l-mus^  rlger-e-s.^  for  regera-i-s. 
The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms,  originally  distinct,  have  in  the  Latin 
been  blended  into  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are  used  without 
any  difference  of  meaning.  Thus  the  Mood  in  mbue-d-mus^  a Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  dm-e-mus.,  an  Optative  form. 

The  1st  Pers.  Sing,  of  Futures  in  dm — regdm^  audidm.,  etc.— is  in  form 
a Subjunctive,  while  the  other  Persons,  reges.,  et.,  etc.,  audies.,  et.,  etc.,  are  in 
forai  Optatives. 

1 In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  each,  (1)  in  the  Active 
Voice  one  pronominal  stem,  m,  L;  s,  thou,  you ; if,  he ; and  (2)  in  the  Pas- 
sive two  such  stems — one  denoting  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive 
V oice : thus  in  the  ending  tur.^  t (tu)  denotes  the  person,  and  r.,  the  voice. 
B of  the  first  person  stands  for  m-r. 

2 In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each,  (1)  in  the  Active  two  pronomi- 
nal stems : mu-s  = m (mu)  and  5,  I and  you,  i.  e.  we ; tis  ~ t (the  original 
form  for  s,  thou,  as  seen  in  tu.,  thoa)  and  5,  = 5 and  5,  thou  and  thou,  i.  e. 
you;  nt  = n and  he  and  he,  i.  e.  they,  and  (2)  in  the  Passive  three  such 
stems — the  third  denoting  the  Passive  voice : thus  in  ntur,  nt  (ntu)  de- 
notes the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

3 Mini  was  not  originally  a Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a Passive 
Participle,  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  {{xcvoi). 
Amdminl.,  originally  dmdmini  estis^  means  ^ou  are  loved.,  as  amdtl  estis 
means  you  have  been  loved. 


FEKSONAL  ENDINGS. 


105 


Examples. 


amaba-m. 

amaba-r, ; 

. rSgo, 

rego-r. 

amaba-s. 

amaba-ris ; 

regi-s, 

rege-ris. 

amaba-t. 

amaba-t  ur ; 

regl-t, 

regi-tur. 

amaba-mus, 

amaba-mur ; 

regi-rniis. 

regi-mur. 

amaba-tis. 

amaba-mini ; 

regi-tis, 

regi-minl. 

amaba-nt, 

amaba-nt  ur ; 

regu-nt. 

regu-ntur. 

1.  Omitted. — The  ending  m is  omitted  in  the  Pres.,^  Perf.,  and  Put. 
Perf.  Ind.  of  all  the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Put.  Ind.  of  Conj.  I.  and  II. 
Accordingly  in  those  forms  the  Pirst  Person  ends  in  the  connecting  vowel 
0 : amby  amahh^  amavero  ; except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  i : ^mdvi. 

2.  The  Endings  of  the  Perfect  Act.  are  peculiar.  They  are  the  same 
as  in  fui : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

t^ers.^  fu-I ; ^ fu-i-mus. 

^econd^  fu-is-tl ; fu-is-tis. 

Tldrd^  fu-i-t ; fu-eru-nt,  or  ere. 

3.  The'*i  irative  Mood  has  tl  . allowing  Personal  Endings: 

AC  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  D’ar.  Sin^ 

Pres.  Second  Pers.., 

Put.  Second., 

Thirds 

248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines,  are 
formed  with  the  following  endings  ; 

ACTIVE. 

re  (ere), 
isse, 

urus  esse, 


Sing. 

D’ar. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

3 

te ; 

re, 

mini. 

to. 

tote  ; 

tor. 

to. 

nto; 

tor, 

ntor. 

Infimiive  Present, 
Perfect, 
Future, 


PASSIVE. 

n (erl),  I, 
US  esse, 
iim  Irl. 


1 Except  in  sum,  I am,  and  inquam,  I say. 

^ if  is  omitted  in  the  first  person,  and  tl,  an  ancient  fonn  of  s,  is  used 
in  the  second.  Otherwise  the  endings  themselves  are  regular,  hut  in  the 
second  person  tl  and  tls  are  preceded  by  is,  and  erunt  in  fu-erunt,  is  foi 
erunt,  the  full  form  for  sunt.  fu-erunt  is  a compound  oifu  and  e^sunt 

for  surd.  Fu-istis,  in  like  manner,  may  be  a compomid  of  fu  and  istis  for* 
estls,  nudifu-istl,  oifu  and  istl  for  estl  for  es. 

^ In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  end- 
ings te  and  re  are  shoidened-from  tis  and  ris  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping 
s and  changing  final  i into  e.  See  28,  1.  In  the  Puture  to  of  the  2d  pers. 
corresponds  to  tl  of  the  Perfect  Ind.,  to  and  ntd  of  the  3d  pers.  to  t and  nt. 
Tor  and  ntor  add  r to  to  and  nib.  Tote  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 


106 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

Participle  Present,  ns. 

Future,  turus. 

Perfect, 

tus. 

Gerundive, 

ndiis. 

Gerund, 

ndl. 

Supine, 

um,  u. 

FOKMATIOIT  OF  STEMS. 


249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the 
Verb  Stem. 

I.  Present  Stem. 

250.  The  Present  Stem  is  generally  the  same  as  the 
Verb  Stem.  Thus  ama^  m6ne^  reg^  and  audi^  are  at  once 
Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

251.  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  identical  with  the 
Verb  Stem,  is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following 
methods  : 

1.  By  inserting  n — changed  to  m before  b or  p : 

Frango ; stem^  frag ; pres,  stem.,  frang ; to  break. 

Fundo ; fud ; fund ; to  pour. 

Rumpo ; rup ; rump ; to  hurst. 


2.  By  adding  n,  especially  to  vowel  stems  : 


Sino ; stem,  si ; 

pres,  stem,  sin  ; to  permit. 

Sperno ; 

sper,  spre ; 

spern ; to  spurn. 

Temno ; 

tern ; 

temn ; to  despise. 

By  adding  a,  e,  or  i : 

Jiivo;  stem. 

jav; 

pres,  stem,  juva;  to  assist. 

Video ; 

vid ; 

vide ; to  see. 

eSpio ; 

cap ; 

capi ; to  take. 

Vincio ; 

vine ; 

vinci ; to  bind. 

Haurio ; 

haur/or  haus 

; hauri ; to  draw. 

4.  By  adding  sc, — to  consonant  stems  isc: 


Veterasco ; stem.,  vetera ; pres,  stem.,  veterasc ; to  grow  old. 
Calesco  ; cale  ; calesc ; to  become  warm. 

Cresco ; ere ; cresc  ; to  increase. 

Apiscor ; ap ; apisc ; to  obtain. 

Nanciscor ; nac ; nancisc  to  obtain. 


5.  By  adding  t : 

Plecto  ; stem,  plec ; pres,  stem,  plect ; to  braid. 


1 A is  inserted  and  isc  added.  See  1 above. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


107 


6.  By  doubling  the  final  consonant — 1,  r,  or  t: 

Pello ; stem^  pel ; pres,  stem^  pell ; to  drive. 

Curro ; cur ; curr ; to  run. 

Mitto;  mit;  mitt;  to  send, 

7.  By  reduplication: 

Gigno ; stem,^  gen  ; pres,  stem.,  gigcn,  gign ; to  heget. 

Sisto ; sta ; sista,  sist ; to  place. 

Sero ; sa ; sisa,  sis,  ser ; to  sow. 

II.  Perfect  Stems. 

S52.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v: 

Amo  (a-o),  amavi,  stem.,  ama ; perf.  stem.,  amav ; to  love. 

Deleo,  delevi,  dele ; delev ; to  destroy. 

Audio,  audivi,  audi ; audiv ; to  hear. 

Most  stems  in  e and  a few  in  a drop  the  final  vowel  and  change  v to  u. 

MvNneo,  monui ; stem,  mone ; perf.  stem,  monev,  monu  ; to  advise, 

Ct^po  (a-o),  crepui ; crepa ; crepav,  crepu ; to  creak. 

2.  In  verbs  in  uo,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  V erb  Stem : 

Acuo,  acui ; stem,  acu ; perf.  stem,  acu ; to  sharpen. 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a few  others,  form  the 

Perfect  Stem  by  adding  u: 

Alo,  alui ; stem,  al ; perf.  stem,  alu ; to  nourish. 

Fremo,  fremui ; frem ; fremu ; to  rage. 

Teneo,  tenui ; ten  ; tenu ; to  hold. 

Doceo,  docui ; doc ; docu ; to  teach. 

254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by 
adding  s: 

Carpo,  carpsi ; stem,  carp  ; perf.  stem,  carps  ; to  pluck. 

Rego,  rexi ; reg  ; rex:=regs  ; to  rule. 

Scribo,  scripsi;  scrib  ; scrips = scribs  ; to  write. 

255.  A few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem 
without  any  suffix  whatever.  But  of  these 

I.  Some  reduplicate  the  stem:^ 

Cano,  cecini ; stem,  can  ; perf.  stem,  cecin  ; to  sing. 

1.  The  Reduplicatioit  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 
of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e, — generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if*  that  vowel  is  e,  i,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e ; see  examples 
imder  273,  1. 

2.  The  Stem-yowel  a is  generally  weakened  to  i,  sometimes  to  e : cddo, 
cecldi  (for  cecddi),  to  fall. 


6 


1 See  list,  273,  I. 


108 


FORMATION’  OF  STEMS. 


3.  REDUPLicATio:fi  WITH  Sp  OE  St, — In  verbs  beginning  with  sp  or  5^,  the 
reduplication  retains  both  consonants,  but  the  stem  drops  the  s : spondeo^ 
spopondi  (for  spo^pondi)^  to  promise  ; sto^  stUi  (for  stesti)^  to  stand. 

4.  In  Compounds  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  do,,  to  give ; sto,,  to  stand ; disco,,  to  learn ; posco,,  to 
demand ; and  sometimes  in  the  compounds  of  curro,,  to  run : re-spondeo^ 
respondi  (redup.  dropped),  to  answer;  circum-do,,  eircum-dedi  (redup.  re- 
tained) ; circum-sto,,  circum-steti,,  to  encircle.  The  compounds  of  do  which 
are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  e of  the  reduplication  into  %:  ad-do,, 
ad-didi  (for  ad-dedi),,  to  add. 

IL  Some  lengthen  the  Stem- Yowel:  * 

Emo,  emi ; sterrhy  cm  ; perf.  stem,  em ; to  huy. 

Ago,  egi ; Sg ; eg ; drive. 

Ab-igo,  ab-egi ; abig ; abeg ; to  drive  away. 

1.  The  stem-vowels  d and  (in  compounds)  ^generally  become  e,  as  in  ago 
and  ab-igo. 

III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged:* 

Ico,  Ici ; stem,  Ic ; perf.  stem,  Ic ; to  strike. 

Viso,  visi;  vis;  \ to  visit. 

1.  Of  the  few  verbs  belonging  to  this  class^  nearly  all  have  the  stem- 
vowel  long,  either  by  nature  or  by  position. 


III.  Supine  Stem. 


256.  Vowel  Stems  and  most  Consonant  Stems  form 


the  Supine  Stem  by  adding  t : 


Amo  amao. 
Deleo, 

Moneo, 

Audio, 

Dico, 

Carpo, 


amatiim  ; stem,  araa,  svp. 
deletum ; dele, 

momtum ; mone,^ 

auditum ; audi, 

dictum ; dic, 

carptum ; carp. 


st.  amat ; to  love. 

delet ; io  destroy. 

monit ; * to  advise. 

audit ; to  hear. 

diet ; to  say. 

carpt ; to  pluck. 


257.  Stems  in  d and  t,  most  stems  in  1 and  r,  and  a 


few  others,  add  s to  the  Verb 

Laedo,  laesum ; stem,  laed,  sup.  i 
Plaudo,  plausum;  plaud. 
Video,  visum ; vid, 

Verto,  versum;  vert, 

Vello, ^ vulsum;  vol, 

Verro,'*  versum  ; ver, 


Stem. 

t.  laes^  {for  laeds);  to  hurt. 

plaus  {for  plauds) ; to  applaud. 
vis  {for  vids) ; to  see. 

vers  ^ {for  verts) ; to  turn. 

vuls®  {for  vols) ; to  pluck. 

vers ; to  brush. 


1 See  lists,  273,  II.  and  III. 

3 See  36.  See  251,  6. 


2 See  213,  foot-note. 
6 See  28,  and  293, 1. 


euphonic  changes  in  stems. 


109 


258.  Euphonic  Changes  in  Stems. 


I.  Befoee  S in  the  Peefect  and  Supine  Stems.  , 

1.  A Guttural — c,  g,  or  h — generally  unites  with  the  s and 

forms  X,  but  is  dropped  after  1 or  r : duco,  duxi  (ducsi),  dux,  to  lead ; rego, : N 
rexi  (regsi),  rex,  to  rule ; coquo,  coxi  (coqusi),  to  cook  ; traho,  traxi  (trahsi), 
to  draw°  algeo,  alsi  (algsi),  ais,  to  be  cold ; mergo,  mersi  (mergsi),  to  dip ; 
mulceo,  mulsum  (mulcsum),  muls,  to  caress  ; figo,  fixum  (figsum),  to^ 
fasten.  ( 

2.  A Dental d or  t — is  generally  dropped,  but  sometimes  assimi-  \ 

lated : claudo,  clausi  (claudsi),  claus,  clausum  (claudsum),  cUus,  to  close ; 
mitto,"^  misi  (mitsi),  missum  (mitsum),  to  send  ; cedo,  cessi  (cedsi),  cessum 
(cedsum),  to  yield.  \ 

3.  B is  changed  to  p : scribo,  scripsi  (scribsi),  scrips,  to  write  ; 7iuho,^ 

to  marry.  / 

4.  Mis  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  strengthened  with  p 
premo,  pressi  (premsi),  press,  pressum  (premsum),  to  press  ; sumo,  sumpsi^ 
(sumsi),  to  take. 

5.  S— changed  to  r in  the  Present— is  sometimes  dropped : haere^ 
(haeseo),  haesi  (haessi),  haes,  haesum  (haessum),  to  stick. 


II.  Befoee  T in  the  Supine  Stem. 

1.  A Guttural — g,  qu  ^ or  h — becomes  c : rl^go,  rectum  (regtum),  rect, 
to  rule ',  coquo,  coctum  (coqutum),  to  cook  ; traho,  tractum  (trahtum),  to 
draw. 

2.  B is  changed  to  p,  as  in  the  Perfect : scriho,  scriptum  (scribtum), 
to  write. 

3.  M is  strengthened  with  p : sumo,  sumpsi  (sumsi),  sumptum  (sum- 
turn),  to  take. 

4.  V is  generally  changed  into  its  corresponding  vowel,  u : volvo, 
volutum  (volvtum),  to  roil.  If  a vowel  precedes,  a contraction  takes 
place — a-u  becoming  an,  rarely  5 ; o-u  becoming  5,  and  u-u  becoming  u : 
lavo,  lavtum,  lautum,  lotam,  to  wash ; moveo,  movUim,  moutum,  motum, 
to  move;  juvo,  juvtum,  juutum,  jutum,  to  assist. 


1 Sometimes  also  gu : exstinguo,  exstinxi,  exstinctum,  to  extinguisli.  Vivo,  vixi, 
nictum,  to  live ; jluo,  jiuxi,  fiuxum,  to  flow ; and  stvuo,  struxi,  structum,  to  build, 
form  tbe  Perfect  and  Supine  from  stems  in  n for  gn. 

2 Stem  mit  (251,  6) ; in  misi,  t is  dropped,  but  in  missum  assimilated. 


110 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS, 


CLASSIFICATIOlSr  OF  VERBS.» 

FIRST  CONJUGATION.  | 

■■  i 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a:  Perfect  in  vi  or  ui.  J 

I.  Stem  in  a:  Peefect  in  vi.  i 


259.  Principal  Parts  in  : o,  are,  avi,  ^tum. 


These  endings  belong 

to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation. 

The  follow- 

ing  are  examples : 

Dono, 

Honoro, 

Libero, 

Nomino, 

Pugno, 

Spero, 

Voco, 

donare, 

honorare, 

liberare, 

nominare, 

pugnare, 

sperare, 

vocare. 

donavi, 

honoravi, 

liberavi, 

nominavi, 

pugnavi, 

speravi, 

vocavi. 

donatum, 

honoratum, 

liberatum, 

nominatum, 

pugnatum, 

speratum, 

vocatum, 

to  bestow, 
to  honor, 
to  free, 
to  name, 
to  fight, 
to  hope, 
to  coil. 

t 

II.  Stem  in  a:  Peefect  in  ui. 

260. 

Principal  Parts  in  : o, 

are,  ui, 

itum.’ 

Crepo, 

crepare. 

crepui. 

crepitum. 

to  creak. 

Increpo,  dre,  ui  (dvi),  \tum  (dtum) ; discrepo,  dre,  ui  (dm) . 

Ciibo, 

Domo, 

Eneco, 

Frico, 

Mico, 

cubare, 

domare, 

enecare, 

fricare, 

micare 

cubui, 

domui, 

enecui, 

fricui, 

micui. 

cubitum, 

domitum, 

enectum, 

( frictum, 

\ fricatum. 

to  recline.^  \ 

to  tame, 
to 

to  rub. 
to  glitter. 

Dlmico,  dre^  d/vi  (ui),  dtum  ; emlco,  dre,  ui,  dtum. 


1 The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregularities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.  In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is 
first  given  with  a few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which 
deviate  from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  compounds  as  deviate  in  any  important 
particular  from  their  simple  verbs. 

2 Note  deviations  in  the  Supine.  The  ending  ui  may  have  been  formed  from  ari 
by  dropping  a and  changing  to  u,  and  the  ending  Itmn  from  atum  by  weakening 
f to  i.  See  213,  foot-note.  But  in  some  of  these  verbs  the  Perfect  and  Supine  may 
be  formed  from  consonant  stems.  Thus  sdnui,  sonitum  may  be  formed  from  the 
liquid  stem  son,  in  sono,  soncvs,  like  dlui,  dlitum  from  the  liquid  stem  ul  in  ulo,  ulevi, 
to  nourish.  See  253. 

3 Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  accumho,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.  See  275, 1. 

4 The  simple  n^o  is  regular,  and  even  in  the  compound  the  forms  in  dvi  and  dtum 
occur. 


Ill 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  YEEBS. 


Pllco,  plicare,  | pilcavi,  | plicatum, 

DupVtco,  multiplico,  replico,  and  supplico,  are  regular:  are,  wti,  dtum. 

Scco,  secare,  secui,  sectum,  io  cut. 

Participle,  secaturus. 

Sono,  sonare,  sonui,  sonitum,  io  sound. 

Participle,  sonatur  us.  Most  compounds  want  Sup.  Besbno  lias  Perf.  resonari. 

Tono  tonare,  tonui,  (tonitum),  to  thunder. 

Veto,  vetare,  vetui,  vetitum,  io  forbid. 

1.  Poto,  dre,  dri,  dtum,  to  drink,  has  also  potum  in  the  supine. 

2.  The  Passive  Participles  cenatus  and  juratus  {ceno,  to  dine,  and /wro,  to  swear) 
are  active  in  signification,  haring  dined,  etc.  Potus,  from  poto,  is  also  sometimes  active. 


Class  II. — Peefect  in  i. 

I.  Perfect  dt  i:  with  Reduplication. 

261.  Principal  Parts  in  o,  are,  i,  turn. 

Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  to  give. 

Sto,  stare,  steti,  statum,  to  stand. 

1.  In  do  the  characteristic  a is  short  by  exception:  dabam,  ddbo,  dd/rem,  etc. 
Four  compounds  oi  do— circumdo,  pessumdo,  satisdo,  and  renumdo—zxc  conjugated 
like  the  simple  verb;  the  rest  are  dissyllabic  and  of  the  Third  Conj.  (273, 1.)  The 
basis  of  the  dissyllabic  compounds  is  do,  to  place,  originally  distinct  from  do,  to  give. 

2 Compounds  of  sto  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  if  the  first  part  is  a dis- 
syllable,  otherwise  they  take  stiti  for  steti : adsto,  adstdre,  adstiH,  adstatum.  Disto 
wants  Perf.  and  Sup. 


II.  Perfect  in  i:  with  Lengthened  Stem-Yowel. 


282.  Principal  Parts  in  ; o,  are,  i,  atum,  or  turn. 

Juvo,  juvare,  juvi,  jutum,  to  assist. 

Participle  juvaturus,  but  in  compounds  is  also  used. 


Lavo,  lavare,  lavi. 


( lavatum, 

< lautum,  io  wash. 

( lotum. 


1.  In  poetry  Idvo  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. : Idro,  larere,  Idri,  etc. 

2.  Injuro  and  Idn^o,  the  stems  are and  lav,  strengthened  in  the  Present  io jura 
and  lara.  See  251,  3 ; also  258,  II.  4. 


263.  Deponent  Yeebs. 


In  this  conjugation 

Conor,  conari. 

Hortor,  hortari. 

Miror,  mirari. 


deponent  verbs  are 

conatus  sum, 
hortatus  sum, 
miratus  sum. 


entirely  regular. 

to  endeavor, 
to  exhort, 
to  admire. 


112 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEEBS. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  e : Pekfect  in  vi  or  ui. 
I.  Stem  in  e : Perfect  in  vi. 


264.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,  ere,  evi,  etum.^ 
These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs : 

Compleo,  complere,  complevi,  completum,  to  jilL 

So  other  compounds  of  jgHeo ; as  expleo^  impleo. 

Deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  to  destroy. 

Fleo,  flere,  flevi,  fletum,  to  weep.  . 

Neo,  nere,  nevi,  netum,  io  spin. 

1.  Aboleo,  abolere,  abolevi,  abolitum,  to  destroy,  is  compounded  of  db  and  oleo 
(not  used).  The  other  compounds  of  oleo  generally  end  in  esco,  and  are  of  the  third 
conjugation.  See  abolesco,  277. 

2.  Vieo,  mere,  vietum,  to  weave,  bend,  is  rare,  except  in  the  participle  vietus. 


II.  Stem  in  e:  Perfect  in  ui. 


265.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,  ere,  ui,  itum. 


These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.  The 
following  are  examples : 


Debeo, 

debere. 

debui. 

debitum. 

to  owe. 

Habeo, 

habere. 

habui, 

habitum. 

io  have. 

Moneo, 

monere. 

monui. 

monitum, 

to  advise. 

Noceo, 

nocere. 

nocui. 

nocitum. 

to  hurt. 

Pareo, 

parere, 

parui, 

paritum. 

to  obey. 

Placeo, 

placere. 

placui. 

placitum. 

to  please. 

Taceo, 

tacere. 

tacui. 

tacitum. 

to  be  silent. 

286.  Supine  wanting. — Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  ui,  want 
the  Supine.  The  following  are  the  most  important : 


Candeo,  to  shine. 

Egeo,  to  want. 

Eraineo,  to  stand  forth. 
Floreo,  to  bloom. 
Frondeo,  to  bear  leaves. 
Uorreo,  to  shudder. 
Lateo,  to  be  hid. 


Madeo,  to  be  wet. 
Niteo,  to  shine. 
Oleo,  to  smell. 
Palleo,  to  be  pale. 
Pateo,  to  be  open. 
Eubeo,  to  be  red. 
Sileo,  to  be  silent. 


Sorbeo,  to  swallow. 
Splendeo,  to  shine. 
Studeo,  to  study. 
Stupeo,  to  be  amazed. 
Timeo,  to  fear. 
Torpeo,  to  be  torpid. 
Vireo,  to  be  green. 


267.  Perfect  and  Supine  wanting. — Some  verbs,  derived  mostly 
from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine.  The  following  are  the 
most  important : 

Albeo,  to  be  white.  Caneo,  to  be  gray.  Hebeo,  to  be  blunt. 

Calveo,  to  be  bald.  Flaveo,  to  be  yellow.  Humeo,  to  be  moist. 


^ We  class  evi  and  Uwm,  though  belonging  to  but  few  verbs,  with  the  regular 
formations,  because  they  are  the  full  and  original  forms  from  which  the  more  common 
ui  and  itum  are  derived.  See  213,  foot-note. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION, 


Immineo,  to  threaten.  Maereo,  i!o  6«  tad.  fo  bellthy 

Lacteo,  to  s«  A Folleo,  i(o  Je  Squaleo,  Jo 

Class  II.— Stem  m c,  n,  r,  oe  s : Pereect  in  ui. 

Prcs&nt  Stem  adds  e.  See  251,  3. 

268.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  or  cum. 
T]iese  endings  belong  to  tbe  following  verbs : 

Censeo,  censere,  censui,  censum,  to  think. 

Perf.  Part,  census  and  censltus.-Percenseo  wants  Sup. ; recenseo  has  recensum 
and  recensitum» 

Doceo;  docere,  docui,  doctum,  to  teach. 

• ' mistum,  , • 

Misceo,  miscere,  miscui,  | mixtum. 

Teneo,  tenere,  tenui,  tentum,  to  hold. 

mvineo,  ire,  ui,  detentum;  so  oUinso  and  retineo;  other  compounds  seldom 
have  Sup. 

Torreo,  torrere,  torrui,  tostum,  to  roast. 

Class  IIL— Stem  in  a Consonant:  Pekeect  in  si  oe  L" 


269.  Stem  in  a Consonant:  Peefect  in  si. 


PfcscTit  StcTifi  adds  ©.  See  251)  3. 


I.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo, 


Algeo, 

algere, 

aki. 

Ardeo, 

ardere, 

arsi, 
i conivi. 

Coniveo, 

«onivere, 

( conixi. 

Prigeo, 

frigere, 

frixi  {rarc\ 

Fulgeo, 

fulgere. 

fulsi, 

VoeWc  fulgo,  fulgere,  ete. 

haesi. 

Haereo,^ 

haerere. 

Jubeo, 

jubere, 

jussi, 

Luceo, 

lucere. 

luxi. 

Lugeo, 

lugere. 

luxi. 

M^neo, 

manere. 

mansi. 

Mulceo, 

mulcere. 

mulsi. 

Compounds  have  mulsusn  or  mulctum. 

Mulgeo, 

mulgere, 

mulsi. 

Eldeo, 

ridere. 

rlsl. 

Suadeo, 

suadere. 

suasi. 

Tergeo, 

tergere, 

tersi. 

ere,  si, 

arsum, 


haesum, 

jussum, 


mansum, 

miilsum, 

mulsum, 

nsnm, 

suasum, 

tersum. 


sum. 

to  he  cold, 
to  burn. 

to  winJc  at. 

to  he  cold, 
to  shine. 

to  stieJe. 
to  order, 
to  shine, 
to  mourn, 
to  remain, 
to  caress. 

to  milk, 
to  laugh, 
to  advise, 
to  ivipe. 


1 For  convenience  of  reference,  a General  List  of  aU  verhs  involving  irregularities 

will  be  found  on  page  328.  . t.  i. 

a The  stem  of  haereo  is  Sues.  The  Present  adds  c and  chanps  « to  r between  two 
vowels.  In  haesi  and  haesum,  s stands  for  ss— haesi  for  haes-si— and  is  therefore  no 
changed.  See  258,  i.  5. 


114 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEEBS. 


Tergo^  of  Conj.  III.,  also  occurs : tergo^  ere^  si,  sum. 

Turgeo,  turgere,  tursi  {rare)y  io  swell. 

Urgeo  (urgueo),  urgere,  ursi,  to  press. 

1.  Cieo,  ciere,  civi,  citum,  to  arouse,  has  a kindred  form,  do,  clre,  clvi,  cltum, 
from  which  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the 
Fourth  Conj.  prevail,  especially  in  the  sense  of  to  call,  call  forth. 

2.  For  Euphonic  Changes  before  si  and  sum,  see  258,  I. 

II.  Principal  Parts  in:  eOj  ere,  si,  tum. 

to  increase, 
to  indulge, 
to  twist. 


sum- 

to  bite, 
to  hang, 
to  promise, 
to  shear. 


Augeo, 

augere, 

auxi. 

auctum, 

Indulgeo, 

indulgere. 

indulsi. 

indultum, 

Torqueo, 

torquere, 

torsi. 

tortum, 

270»  Stem  in 

A Consonant:  Peefect  ; 

Fresent  Stem  adds  e. 

See  251,  3, 

I.  With  Eeduplication. 

Principal  Parts  in: 

eo,  ere,  i, 

Mordeo, 

mordere. 

momordi, 

morsum, 

Pendeo, 

pendere, 

pependi. 

pensum, 

Spondeo, 

spondere. 

spopondi, 

sponsum, 

Tondeo, 

tondere. 

totondi. 

tonsum, 

For  reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255, 1. 

4. 

II.  With  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 

1.  Principal  Parts ; 

in:  eo. 

ere,  i, 

Caveo, 

cavere. 

cavi, 

cautum, 

Faveo, 

favere. 

favi. 

fautum, 

Foveo, 

fovere. 

fovi. 

fotum, 

Moveo, 

movere. 

movi, 

motum, 

Paveo, 

pavere. 

pavi. 

— 

Voveo, 

vovere. 

vovi, 

votum, 

turn. 

to  beware, 
to  favor, 
to  cherish, 
to  move, 
to  fear, 
to  vow. 


ere, 

sessum, 


1. 


sum. 

to  sit. 


2.  Principal  Parts  in:  eo. 

Sedeo,  sedere,  sedi. 

So  circumsedeo  and  supersedeo.  Other  compounds  thus:  assideo,  ere,  assedt^ 
assessum  ; but  dissideo,  praesideo,  and  reddeo,  want  Supine. 

Video,  videre,  vidi,  visum, 

III.  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

Principal  Parts  in:  eo,  ere,  l, 

Coniveo,  conivere,  -j  | 

Ferveo,  fervere. 


i conivi, 
' conixi, 
j fervi, 

{ ferbui, 


to  see. 

sum.* 

to  wink  at. 
to  boil. 


Supine  Stem  is  wanting  in  most  of  these  verbs. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


115 


Langueo,  languere,  langui,  ^ 

Liqueo,  liquere,  liqui  (licui),  

Prandeo,  prandere,  prandi,  pransum. 

Participle,  pransus^  in  an  active  sense,  haloing  dined. 
Strideo,  stridere,  stridi,  • 

271.  Deponent  Verbs. 

1.  Regular. 
licitus  sum, 
meritus  sum, 
pollicitus  sum, 
tuitus  sum, 
veritus  sum. 

2.  Irregular. 
fassus  sum. 


Liceor, 

Mereor, 

Polliceor, 

Tueor, 

Vereor, 

Fateor, 

Medeor, 

Misereor, 

Reor, 

Audeo, 

Gaudeo, 

Soleo, 


liceri, 

mereri, 

polliceri, 

tueri, 

vereri, 

fateri, 

mederi. 


io  he  languid, 
to  he  liquid, 
to  dine. 


to  creak. 


to  hid. 
to  deserve, 
to  promise, 
to  protect, 
to  fear. 


to  confefi 
to  cure. 


( miseritus  sum, 
] misertus  sum, 
ratus  sum. 


to  pity, 
to  think. 


misereri, 
reri, 

Semi-Deponeiit^ — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
audere,  ausus  sum,  to  dare. 

gaudere,  gavisus  sum,  to  rejoice. 

solere. 


to  he  accustomed. 


solitus  sum, 

THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a Consonant:  Perfect  in  si  or  i. 
272.  Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  si. 

I.  Principal  Parts  in:  o,  io,  ere,  si,  turn. 
These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 


consonant. 

Carpo, 

The  following  are  examples : ^ 
carpere,  carpsi,  carptum. 

to  pluck. 

Cingo, 

cingere. 

cinxi  {gsi\ 

cinctum. 

to  gird. 

Coquo, 

coquere, 

coxi. 

coctum, 

demptum. 

to  cook. 

Demo, 

demere. 

dempsi. 

to  take  away. 

Dico, 

dicere. 

dixi. 

dictum. 

to  say. 

Duco, 

ducere. 

duxi. 

ductum, 

to  lead. 

Exstinguo, 

exstinguere. 

exstinxi. 

exstinctum, 3 

to  extinguish. 

Gero, 

gerere. 

gessi. 

gestum. 

to  carry. 

Nubo, 

Rego, 

nubere. 

nupsi, 

nuptum. 

to  marry. 

regere. 

rexi. 

rectum. 

to  rule. 

Sumo, 

sumere. 

sumpsi. 

sumptum. 

to  take. 

Traho, 

trahere. 

traxi. 

tractum. 

to  draw. 

^ Confiteor^  eil  confessus  : so  profiteor. 

* For  Euphonic  Changes^  see  258. 

> So  other  compounds  of  stinguo  (rare) : distinguo^  etc. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


116 


Uro, 

Veho, 

Vivo, 


tirere, 

vehore, 

vivere, 


ussi, 

vexi, 

vixi, 


ustum, 

vectum, 

victum. 


io  hum. 
to  carry, 
to  live. 


1.  Stem-Vowel  in  Compounds.  See  255,  II.  1. 

Carpo : de-cerpo,  decerpere,  decerpsi,  decerptum,  to  pluck  off. 

Rego : di-rigo,  dirigere,  direxi,  directum  (214, 1.),  to  direct. 

Here  decerpo.,  though  it  has  not  the  same  stem-vowel  as  the  simple  carpo.,  forms 
its  principal  parts  precisely  like  the  simple  verb ; but  dirigo  changes  the  stem-vowel 
in  forming  those  parts,  having  i in  the  Pres.,  and  e in  the  Perf.  and  Sup. 

2.  Compounds  of  Obsolete  Verbs  present  the  same  vowel  changes : Ldcio  (obs.); 
al-licio,  allicere,  allexi,  allectum  (214,  II.),  to  allure. 

So  illicio.,  pellicio.  For  elicio.,  see  2T5, 1. 

Specio  (obs.) : a-spicio,  aspicere,  aspexi,  aspectum,  to  look  at. 

II.  Principal  Parts  in:  o,  io,  ere,  si,  sum.* 

Cedo,  cedere,  cessi,  cessum,  to  yield. 

Claudo,  claudere,  clausi,  clausum,  to  close. 

Compounds  have  u for  au:  concludo.,  excludo. 

Divido,  dividere,  divisi,  divisum,  to  divide. 

Evado,  evadere,  evasi,  evasum,  io  evade. 

So  other  compounds  of  vado.  See  281. 

fixum,  to  fasten. 

flexum,  to  bend. 

to  gnash. 

( fressum,  ^ 

laesum,  to  hurt. 

lusum,  to  play. 

mersum,  to  dip. 

missum,  io  send. 

nexum,  to  bind. 

pexum,  to  comb. 

plexum,  to  plait. 

plausum,  io  applaud. 


Figo, 

Flecto, 

figere, 

flectere. 

fixi, 

flexi. 

Frendo, 

frendere. 

— 

Laedo,  laedere. 

Compounds  have  i for  ae : 
Ludo,  ludere, 

Mergo,  mergere. 

Mitto,  mittere. 

laesi, 
illido.,  etc. 
lusi, 
mersi, 
misi. 

Necto, 

Pecto, 

Plecto, 

Plaudo, 

nectere, 

pectere, 

plectere, 

plaudere, 

5 nexi, 

( nexili,^ 
pexi, 
plexi, 
plausi. 

So  applaudo;  other  compounds  have  o for  au:  explodo.,  etc. 
Premo,  premere,  pressi, 

Quatio,  quatere,  quassi, 

Compounds  have  cu  for  qua : concutio.,  etc. 

Rado,  radere,  rasi. 

Rodo,  rodere,  rosi. 

Spargo,  spargere,  sparsi. 

Compounds  generally  have  e for  a : aspergo.,  respergo. 
Tergo,  tergere,  tersi,  tersum. 

Also  tergeo.,  tergere  (Conj.  II.) ; compounds  take  this  form. 
Trudo,  trudere,  trusi,  trusum. 


pressum  (258,  T.  4),  to  press. 
quassum  (258, 1.  2),  to  shake. 


rasum, 

rosum, 

sparsum. 


to  shave, 
to  gnaw, 
to  scatter. 

to  wipe  off. 

to  thrust. 


1 For  Euphonic  Changes.,  see  258. 

2 Compounds  take  this  form  in  the  Perfect. 


THIRD  €ONJUGATIOX, 


11^ 


273.  Stem  ix  a Consonant:  Perfect  in  i. 

L With  Reduplication. 

i.  Principal  Parts  in  ^ o,  io,  Sre,  turn. 


Abdo, 

abdere. 

abdidi. 

abditum, 

io  hide. 

So  all  compounds  of  except  those  of  Conj.  I.  (261) : addo,  condo,  credo,  dedo. 

Mo,  indo,  oMo, perdo,  prodo,  reddo,  trado,  vendo;  but  abs-condo  generally  drops 

reduplication : abs-condi. 

Cano, 

canere, 

cecini. 

cantum. 

to  sing. 

Concino,  ere,  concinui. 

; so  ocenno  and  praecino  ; 

other  compounds  want 

Perf.  and  Sup, 
Credo, 

credere, 

credidi, 

creditum, 

^ to  believe. 

Disco, 

discere, 

didici, 



to  learn. 

Do,  (Jonf  I. 

See  abdo, 

above. 

Pango, 

pangere, 

pSpigi, 

pactum, 

to  bargain. 

Pango, 

pangere, 

( panxi, 

1 pegi, 

t panctum, 
l pactum. 

to  fix  in. 

Compingo,  ere,  compegi,  compactum;  &o  also  impingo.  Depango  wants  PerL^ 
repango,  Perf.  and  Sup. 

Pario,  parere,  peperi,  partum,  to  bring  forth. 


pariturus ; compounds  are  of  Conj.  IV. 

Pungo,  pungere,  pupugi,  punctum,  to  prick. 

Compounds  thus  compungo,  ere,  compunxi,  compunctum. 

Sisto,  sistere,  stiti,  statum,  to  place. 

Sisto  seemB  to  have  been  derived  from  sto,  and  forms  the  Perf.  and  Sup.  after  that 
analogy.— Compounds  thus;  consisto,  ere,  constUi,  constUum;  \)\ii  circumsteti  also 
occurs. 

Tango,  tangere,  tetigi,  tactum,  to  touch. 

Compounds  thus  ; attingo,  ere,  attigi,  attactum. 

Tendo,  tendere,  tetendi,  | stretch. 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  prefer  Sup.,  tentum,  but  detendo  and  ostendo 
have  tensicm ; and  extendo,  protendo,  and  retendo,  have  both  forms. 

Tollo,  tollSre,  | ®'iWatum,  lo  raise. 

Attollo  and  extollo  want  Perf.  and  Sup. 

Vendo,  vendere,  vendidi,  venditum,^  to  sell. 

2.  Principal  Parts  in  : o,  Sre,  i,  sum. 

Cado,  cadere,  cecidi,  casum,  to  fall. 

Incido,  ere,  incidi,  inedsum ; so  occido  and  recldo ; other  compounds  want 
supine. 


Explained  as  compound  of  do ; see  ahdo. 


118 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEKBS, 


Caedo,  caedere,  cecidi,  caesum,  to  cut 

Compounds  thus:  concido^  concidi^  concisum. 

Curro,  currere,  cucurri,  cursum,  to  run. 

Excurro  and  'praecurro  generally  retain  the  reduplication,  exciicurrt  praecH- 
curri  ; other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

Fallo,  fallere,  fefelli,  falsum,  to  deceive. 

Refello^  ere,,  refelli,,  without  Supine. 

Parco,  parcere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum,  io  spare. 

Comparco,  ere,  comparsi,  comparsum,  also  with  e for  a:  comperco,  ere,  etc. 
Jmparco  and  reparco  want  Perf.  and  Sup. 

Pello,  pellere,  pepiili, 

Pendo,  pendere,  pependi, 

Posco,  poscere,  poposci, 

Tendo,  tendere,  tetendi. 


pulsum,^ 
pensum,^ 
_2 

( tentum, 

r 


to  drive, 
to  weigh, 
to  demand. 

to  stretch. 


tensum. 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  prefei*  Sup.,  tentum,  but  detendo  and  ostendo 
have  tensum;  and  extendo,  protemdo,  and  retendo,  have  both  forms. 


Tundo, 


tundere. 


tutudi. 


tusum. 

Compounds  drop  reduplication  and  generally  take  tusum  in  Sup. 


j tunsum, 
( tus 


to  heat 


II.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Vowel. 


1.  Principal  Parts  in  : o,  lo,  ere,  i,  tum^ 

Ago,  agere,  egi,  actum,  to  drive. 

E.,  eircumdgo  and  pSrdgo ; sdtdgo  wants  Perf.  and  Sup.  Other  compounds 
\ar.go  . ito  iin  the  Pres.:  dbigo,  ere,  abegi,  abactum;  but  edigo  becomes  cbgo, 
ire,  coegi,  coactum,  and  deigo,  dego,  ere,  degi,  without  Sup.  Prodigo  wants  Sup., 
and  ambigo,  Pei-f  and  Sup. 

Capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum,  to  take. 

So  anteedpio;  other  compounds  thus:  accipio,  ire,  accepi,  acceptum. 

Emo,  emere,  emi,  emptum,  to  buy. 

So  coemo  ; other  compounds  thus : ddimo,  ire,  ademi,  ademptum. 

Facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  to  make. 

Passive  irregular:  jio,  fieri,  factus  mm.  See  294. 

So  satisfacio  and  compounds  of  facio  with  verbs,  but  compounds  with  preposi- 
tions thus  : conficio,  conficire,  confeci,  confectum,  with  regular  Pass.,  conficior,  con- 
fici, confectus  sum. — Compounds  of  facio  with  nouns  and  adjectives  are  of  Conj.  I. : 
significo,  are,  (mi,  dtum. 

Frango,  frangere,  fregi,  fractum,  to  break. 

Compounds  thus : confringo,  ire,  confregi,  confractum. 


1 Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255,  I.  4. 

2 Compounds  retain  reduplication,  255,  I,  4, 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


119 


fugitum,  to  flee. 

jactum,  to  throw. 

; other  compounds  thus : at)ficio^ 


Fugio,  fugere,  fugi. 

Jacio,  jacere,  jeci. 

Superjacio  jactum  or  jectum  in  Sup. : 
ahjeci^  abjectum. 

Lego,  legere,  legi,  lectum. 

So  compounds,  except  (1)  colligo,  ere,  colligi,  collectum;  so  deligo,  eligo,  seligo ! 
—(2)  diligo,  ere,  dilexi,  dilectum;  so  intelligo,  negligo. 

Linquo,  linquere,  liqui,  

Compounds  with  Sup. : relinquo,  ere,  reliqui,  relictum. 

Rumpo,  rumpere,  rupi,  ruptum. 

Scabo,  scabere,  scabi,  — 

Vinco,  vincere,  vici,  victum. 


to  read. 


to  leave. 

to  hurst, 
to  scratch, 
to  conquer. 


2.  Principal  Parts 

in  : o,  io, 

Sre,  i, 

sum. 

Edo, 

edere. 

edi. 

esum. 

to  eat. 

Fbdio, 

fodere, 

fodi. 

fossum. 

to  dig. 

Fundo, 

fundere. 

fudi. 

fusum. 

to  pour. 

IIL  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

Principal  Parts  in  : o,  ere,  i, 

sum.' 

Accendo, 

accendere. 

accendi, 

accensum. 

to  kindle. 

So  other  compounds  of  cando  (obsolete):  incendo,  succendo. 

Cudo, 

cudere. 

cudi, 

cusum. 

to  forge. 

Defendo, 

defendere, 

defendi. 

defensum, 

to  defend. 

So  other  compounds  oifendo  (obsolete):  offendo,  etc. 

Findo, 

findere. 

fidi  (findi), 

fissum. 

to  part. 

Ico, 

Icere, 

ici, 

ictum. 

to  strike. 

Mando, 

mandere. 

mandi. 

mansum. 

to  chew. 

Pando, 

Pandere, 

pandi. 

j passum, 

/ pansum. 

to  open. 

\ pinsi, 

\ pinsui. 

( pinsitum. 

Pinso  (piso). 

pinsere, 

pistum, 

( pinsum. 

to  pound. 

Prehendo, 

prehendere. 

prehendi, 

prehensum. 

to  grasp. 

Often  written  prendo,  prendere,  etc. 

Scando, 

scandere. 

scandi. 

scansum, 

to  climb. 

Compounds  have  e for  a : ascendo,  descendo. 
Scindo,  scindere,  scidi, 


scissum, 

solutum,^ 

vulsum. 


Solvo,  solvere,  solvi, 

Vello,  vellere,  velli  (vulsi). 

Compounds  in  good  use  generally  have  velli. 

Aberro,  verrere,  verri,  versum, 

Verto,  vertere,  verti,  versum, 

Compounds  of  de,  prae,  r^,  are  generally  deponent  in  the 
Future. 


to  rend, 
to  loose, 
io  pluck. 

to  brush, 
to  turn. 

Pres.,  Imperf.,  and 


1 For  euphonic  changes  before  s,  see  258,  I. 

2 Fis  here  changed  to  its  cori’esponding  vowel  u : solutum  for  solvtum. 


120 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS, 


Viso,  visere,  visi, 

Volvo,  volvere,  volvi, 


visum,  to  visit 

volutum.*  to  roll. 


Class  II. — Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  uL 
274.  Stem  in  a Liquid — 1,  m,  n,  r;  Perfect  in  ui. 
Principal  Parts  in:  o,  ere,  ui,  tum,  or  itum. 

Alo,  alere,  alui, 

Cello,  obsolete.  See  excello,  below. 


I alitum, 
* altum. 


to  nourish. 


Colo,^  colere,  colui,  cultum,  io  cultivate. 

Consulo,  consulere,  consului,  consultum,  to  cortsuU. 

Excello,  excellere,  excellui  {rare\ to  excel. 

Other  compounds  of  cello  want  Perf.  and  Sup.,  except  percello^  percellere^  per- 


cidt  perculsum. 
Fremo, 

fremere. 

fremui. 

fremitum, 

io  rage. 

Fiiro, 

furere, 

furui. 

— 

io  rage. 

Gemo, 

Gigno, 

gemere, 

gemui, 

gemitum, 

to  groan. 

gignere. 

genui  (/.  genoX  genitum. 

to  beget. 

Molo, 

molere, 

molui. 

molitum, 

to  grind. 

Occulo, 

occulere, 

occului. 

occultum. 

to  hide. 

Sero, 

serere. 

serui. 

sertum. 

to  connect. 

Tremo, 

Vomo, 

tremere. 

tremui. 

— 

to  tremble. 

vomere, 

vomui, 

vomitum, 

to  vomit. 

275. 

, Stems  in 

b,  p,  c,  s, 

t,  s: : Perfect 

IN  ui. 

1.  Principal  Parts  in:  0,10,  Sre,  ui,  turn,  or  itum. 


Accumbo, 

accumbere. 

accubui. 

accubitum. 

io  recline. 

So  other  compounds  of  cumbo,,  cubo.  See  cubo^  260. 

Compesco, 

compescere. 

compescui. 

— 

io  resti'ain. 

Cumbo  for  ciibo,  in  compounds : see  accumbo. 

Depso, 

depsere. 

depsui,  - 

1 depsitum, 

[ depstum, 

io  Icnead. 

Elicio, 

elicere. 

elicui. 

elicitum. 

to  elicit. 

Other  compounds  of  Idcio^  thus : allicio.,  ere.,  allexi.,  allectum. 

( pinsui,  ^ 

{ pinsi,  1 

[ pinsitum, 

Pinso, 

pinsere. 

pistum, 

' pinsum. 

io  crush. 

Pono, 

ponere. 

posui,  S 

positum. 

to  place. 

Rapio, 

rapere. 

rapui. 

raptum. 

to  snatch. 

Compounds  thus : corripio.,  corripere.,  corripui.,  correptum. 

Sterto, 

stertere. 

stertui, 



to  snore. 

Strepo, 

strepere, 

strepui, 

strepitum. 

to  make  a noise. 

Texo, 

texere. 

texui. 

textum. 

to  weave. 

See  foot-note,  p.  119. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


121 


II,  Principal  Parts  in:  o,  Sre,  sui,  sum. 

MSto,  metere,  messui,  messum,  to  reap. 


Necto, 


nectere, 


nexi, 

nexui. 


nexum. 


io  hind. 


1.  The  Perfect  in  sui  is  a double  formation,  si  enlarged  to  sui. 

III.  Many  Inceptives  in  esco  form  the  Perfect  in  ui  from  their  pnmi- 
tives.  See  282,  1.  2. 

Class  III— Stem  a Vowel  : Perfect  m vi  or  i. 

276.  Stem  in  a:  Perfect  in  vi. 

Present  stem  adds  sc  or  n.  See  251,  2 and  4. 

Inveterasco,^  inveterascere,  inveteravi, 

Pasco,^  pascere,  pavi,_ 

Sterno,^  - sternere,  stravi. 

Veterasco,'  veterascere,  veteravi. 


inveteratum,  to  grow  old. 


pastum, 

stratum, 


to  feed, 
to  strew, 
to  grow  old. 


1.  Sero^  stem  sa  (251,  7),  thus ; 


Sero, 


serere. 


sevi. 


satum. 


to  sow. 


Compounds  thus ; consero,  eVe,  consevi^  consitum. 

277.  Stem  in  e : Perfect  in  vi. 

Present  Stem  adds  sc  or  n.  See  251. 

Abolesco,^  abolescere,  abolevi,  abolitum,  to  disappear. 

So  inotesco;  hnt  adolesco  has  Supine  adultum;  exolesco^  exotitum ; obsolesco^ 


dbsoUtum. 

Cerno,'* 

Cresco, 


cernere, 

crescere. 


crevi, 

crevi. 


Incresco  and  succresco  want  Supine. 


Quiesco,^ 

Sperno,'* 

Suesco,^ 


quiescere, 

spernere, 

suescere, 


quievi, 

sprevi, 

suevi, 


cretum, 

cretum, 

quietum, 

spretum, 

suetum. 


io  decide, 
to  grow. 

io  rest, 
to  spurn. 

to  become  accustomed. 


278.  Stem  in  i:  Perfect  in  vi. 


. Clpio, 
Lino,^ 
Sapio, 


cup  ere, 

linere, 

sapere. 


cupivi, 
livi  or  levi, 
sapivi,  sapui. 


cupitum, 

litum, 


to  desire, 
to  smear, 
to  taste. 


, 1 / i / 

Compounds  have  i for  (X,  as  resipio.  Desipio  wants  Perf.  and  Sup. 


1 Stem  invetera^  etc.,  strengthened  by  adding  sc.  See  251,  4.  The  stem  of  pasco 
is  pa,  pas. 

2 Stem  stra,  by  metathesis  star,  lengthened  to  starn  (251,  2).  The  vowel  a is  then 
lightened  to  e before  the  two  consonants  rn. 

3 Stems  dhole,  quie,  etc. 

4 Stems  ere  and  spre,  by  metathesis  cer  and  spzr,  lengthened  to  cern  and  spern. 

^ Present  adds  n. 


122 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEEBS. 


Slno,» 

sinere. 

sivi. 

situm, 

io  permit. 

Tero,2 

terere. 

trivi. 

tritum. 

to  ruh. 

1.  A few  Inchoatives 

in  isco  form  the  Perfect  in  vi 

from  their  primi- 

tives.  See  282,  1.  1. 

2.  The  following  verbs  have  i-stas 

in  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  but 

consonant  stems  in  the  Present. 

Arcesso, 

arcessere. 

arcessivi, 

arcessitum. 

to  call  for. 

Capesso, 

capessere. 

capessivi. 

capessitum. 

to  lay  hold  of. 

Facesso, 

facessere. 

( facessivi, 

( facessi. 

facessitura. 

to  make. 

Incesso, 

incessere. 

incessivi  or- 

■cessi, 

to  attack. 

Lacesso, 

lacessere. 

lacessivi. 

lacessitum. 

to  provoke. 

Peto, 

petere. 

petivi. 

petitum. 

to  ask. 

Quaero, 

quaerere. 

quaesivi. 

quaesitum. 

to  seek. 

Compounds  thus : acquiro.^  ire^  acquislvi,  acquisitum. 

Rudo, 

rudere. 

rudivi. 

ruditum. 

to  hray. 

3.  Nosco  and  its  compounds  form  the  Perfect  in  vi. 

Kosco, 

noscere. 

novi, 

notum. 

to  know. 

So  ignosco. — Agnosco  and  cognosco  have  Itum  in  Sup.,  agnitum  / dignosco  and 
internosco  want  Supine. 


279.  Stem  in  u:  Perfect  in  i. 
Principal  Parts  in  : O,  Sre,  i,  tum. 
The  following  are  examples  : 


Acuo, 

acuere, 

acui, 

acutum, 

to  sharpen. 

Arguo, 

arguere, 

argui, 

argutum. 

to  convict. 

Coarguo  and  redarguo  want  the  Supine. 

Tmbuo, 

imbuere, 

imbui, 

imbutum. 

to  imbue. 

Minuo, 

minuere. 

minui. 

minutum. 

to  dim  inish. 

Ruo, 

ruere, 

rui. 

rutum. 

to  fall. 

Part,  ruiturus. — Corruo  and  irruo  want  Sup. 

Statuo, 

statuere, 

statui, 

statutum. 

to  place. 

Compounds  change  a into  i : constituo. 

Tribuo, 

tribuere, 

tribui, 

tributum. 

to  impart. 

1.  Fluo  and  struo  have  the  Perfect  in  si. 

Fluo, 

fluere, 

fluxi, 

fluxum, 

to  flow. 

Struo, 

struere. 

struxi. 

structum. 

to  build. 

280.  Supine  wanting. — The  following  verbs,  with  the  Perfect  in  si 
or  i,  want  the  Supine : 


* Present  adds  n. 

2 Stem  fri,  by  metathesis  and  change  of  vowel  ter. 


THIKD  CONJUGATION. 


123 


a) 


Ango,  er^e,  anxi,  to  strangle. 

Annuo,  ere,  i,  to  assent. 

So  other  compounds  of  nuo^  but  dbniio 
has  Part,  abnuiturus. 


Batuo,  ere,  i, 
Bibo,  ere,  i. 
Congruo,  ere,  i. 
Ingruo,  ere,  i. 
Lambo,  ere,  i, 
Luo,  ere,  i. 


io  heat, 
to  drink, 
to  agree, 
to  assail, 
to  lick, 
to  wash. 


Part,  luiturus.  Compounds— aU 
luo.^  etc. — ^have  Sup.  lutum» 


MStuo,  Sre,  i,_  _ to  fear. 

Ningo,  ere,  ninxi,  to  snow. 

Pluo,  ere,  i or  vi,  to  rain. 

Psallo,  ere,  i,  to  play  on  a stringed 
instrument. 

Sido,  ere,  i,  to  sit  down. 

Perf.  and  Sup.  generally  supplied  from 
sMeo ; hence  sedi,  sessum.  So  in  com- 
pounds. 

Strldo,  ere,  i,  to  creak. 

Also  strideo.,  Ire  (Conj.  II.). 

Sternuo,  ere,  i,  to  sneeze. 


281.  Perfect  and  Supine  wanting. — Some  verbs  want  both  Per- 
fect and  Supine : 


Stinguo,  to  quench ; 
but  distinguo,  ere, 
distinxi,  distinctum  ; 
so  exstinguo. 

Temno,  to  despise  ; but 


contemno,  ere,  con- 
tempsi, contemptum. 
Yado,  to  go.  See  eva- 
do, 272,  II. 

Yergo,  to  incline. 


Clango,  tf)  clang. 

Claudo,  to  he  lame. 

Fatisco,  to  gape. 

Glisco,  to  grow. 

Hisco,  to  gape. 

1.  Fo^  Inceptiyes,  see  282,  II. 

''  282.  Incepxives. 

Inceptives  end  in  SCO,  and  denote  the  beginning  of  an 
action.  When  formed  from  verbs,  they  are  caUed  Verbal 
Inceptives,  aiid^  when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives. 
Denominative  Inceptives,  zV 

I.  Verbal  Inceptives.— Most  verbal  Jnceptives  wa^'the  Supine,  but 
take  the  Perfect  of  their  primitives : j ^ 

Acesco  (too),  Rcescgre,  _ a.cai, 

Aresco  (<lreo%  arescere,  afui, 

Calesco  {caleo)V  . calescere,  ^ajm. 

Floresco  ( floreo),  florescsMr  /tiyrui. 

Tepesco  (iSpeo),  tepescere,  / tepui. 

Viresco  (vireo),  virescere/  virui. 


io  become  sour, 
to  become  dry. 

■ to  become  warm. 

• to  begin  to  bloom, 
to  become  warm, 
to  become  green. 


rCSCU  yuet  ct/y,  7 

1 The  following  take  the^effect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives : 

sas  fess  s =sf  =3p:,' 

Exardesco  (ex,  ardeo),  ere,  exarsi,  exarsum,  • 

Wterasco  (mWfe>o),  Sre,  inveteravi,  inveteratum,  <o  prow  oW. 

Obdormisco  (ob,  dormio),  ere,  obdormivi,  obdormitum,  <o/a?^  asfegi. 

1 80  inbUsco;  but  Moleseo  has  Sup.  aduU-um;  exolesco,  exomum;  obsdlesco, 
obsoletum. 


124 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VKKES. 


Revivisco  {re^  vivo\  ere,  revixi,  revictum,  to  revive. 

Scisco  \scio\  ere,  scivi,  scitum,  to  enact. 

IL  Denominative  Inceptives. — Most  denominative  inceptives  want 
both  Perfect  and  Supine.  Thus 

Ditesco  {dlves\  to  grow  rich.  Mitesco  to  grow  mild. 

Dulcesco  {dulcis\  to  become  sweet.  Mollesco  {mollis\  to  grow  soft. 
Grandesco  {grandis\  to  grow  large.  Puerasco  {puer\  to  become  a boy. 

1.  The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  ui  : 


Crebresco 

(creber\ 

ere,  crebrui. 

to  become  frequent. 

Duresco 

(durus\ 

ere,  durui. 

to  become  hard. 

Innotesco 

notus)y 

ere,  innotui. 

to  become  known. 

Macresco 

(mdcer)j 

ere,  macrui, 

to  become  lean. 

Maturesco 

(maturus), 

(mger), 

ere,  maturui. 

to  ripen. 

Nigresco 

ere,  nigrui. 

to  become  black. 

Obmutesco 

(ob,  mutus), 

ere,  obmutui. 

to  grow  dumb. 

Recrudesco 

{re,  crudus), 
(vilis), 

ere,  recrudui, 

to  bleed  afresh. 

Vilesco 

ere,  vilui, 

to  become  worthless. 

283. 

Deponent  Verbs. 

Amplector, 

i, 

amplexus  sum, 

to  embrace. 

8o  complector^  circumflector. 

Apiscor, 

aptus  sum, 

to  obtain. 

Ad'ipiscor.,  % ddeptussum; 

so  indipiscor. 

Comminiscor, 

i, 

commentus  sum. 

to  devise. 

Bemlniscor  wants  Perf. 

Expergiscor, 

i, 

experrectus  sum, 

to  awake. 

Fatiscor, 

to  gape. 

BlfetUcor^ 

i,  defessus  sum. 

Fruor, 

frui, 

j fructus  sum, 

( fruitus  sum, 

to  enjoy. 

Viiit.fruitui'us. 

Fungor, 

b 

functus  sum. 

to  perform. 

Gradior, 

h 

gressus  sum. 

to  walk. 

Compounds  thus:  aggredior^  i,  aggressus  sum. 

Irascor, 

i, 

to  he  angry. 

Labor, 

Liquor, 

b 

i. 

lapsus  sum, 

to  fall, 
to  melt. 

Loquor, 

b 

locutus  sum. 

to  speak. 

Miniscor,  obsolete  ; see  comminiscor. 

Morior, 

i (iri,  rare). 

mortuus  sum. 

to  die. 

Part,  moriturus. 


Nanciscor,  i, 

Nascor,  i, 

Part.  nascMurm. 

Nitor,  i, 

Obliviscor,  i, 


nactus  (nanctus)  sum,  to  obtain. 
natus  sum,  to  be  born. 


J nisus  sum, 
j nixus  sum, 
oblitus  sum, 


to  strive, 
to  forget. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


Paciscor,  i,  pactus  sum, 

Patior,  i,  passus  sum. 

Perpetior^  i,  perpessus  sum. 

Proficiscor,  i,  profectus  sum. 

Queror,  i,  questus  sum. 

Reminiscor,  i,  

Ringor,  i,  

Sequor,  i,  secutus  sum, 

Tuor,  antiquated  form  for  tueor  ^ 2Y1,  1. 
Ulciscor,  1,  ultus  sum. 

Utor,  i,  usus  sum, 

Vertor;  see  devertor,  etc.,  under  verto^  273,  III. 
V escor,  i,  


Fido, 


Semi-Deponent. 
fidere,  fisus  sum, 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


125 

to  bargain, 
to  suffer. 


to  set  out. 
to  complain, 
to  remember, 
to  growl, 
to  follow. 

to  avenge, 
to  use. 

to  eat. 


to  trust. 


Class  I. — Stem  in  i : Perfect  in  vi. 


284.  Principal  Parts  in  : io,  ire,  ivi,  itum. 


The  following  are  examples : 


Flnio, 

finire. 

finivi. 

finitum. 

Lenio, 

lenire. 

lenivi. 

lenitum. 

Munio, 

munire. 

munivi. 

munitum, 

punitum. 

Punio, 

punire. 

punivi. 

Scio, 

scire. 

scivi. 

scitum. 

Sepelio, 

sepelire. 

sepelivi. 

sepultum,' 

Sitio, 

Vagio, 

sitire, 

vagire. 

sitivi, 

vagivi. 

to  finish, 
to  alleviate, 
to  fortify, 
to  punish, 
to  know, 
to  burg, 
to  thirst, 
to  cry. 


1.  Fis  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect : audii  for  audivi.  See  234,  1. 

2.  Desideratives  (332,  III.), — except  esurio.,  Ire.,  — , Hum  ; nupturio..  Ire., 
ivi.,  and  parturio.,  ire.,  ivi., — want  both  Perf.  and  Sup.  Also  a few  others  : 


Balbutio,  to  stammer. 
Caecutio,  to  be  blind. 
Ferio,  to  strike. 


FerOcio,  to  be  fierce. 
Gannio,  to  bark. 
Ineptio,  to  trifle. 


Sagio,  to  be  wise. 
Superbio,  to  be  proud. 
Tussio,  to  cough. 


Class  II. — Stem  in  c,  1,  or  r : Perfect  in  ui. 


Present  Stem  adds  i.  See  251,  3. 


285.  Principal  Parts  in : io,  ire,  ui,  turn. 


Amicio,  amicire,  amicui  (xi),  amictum. 

Aperio,  Sperlre,  aperui,  apertum, 

OpSrio,  operire,  operui,  opertum. 

Salio,  salire,  salui  (ii),  (saltum). 

Compounds  thus:  desilio,  Ire,  ui  (fi),  (desultum). 


to  clothe, 
to  open, 
to  cover, 
to  leap. 


Supine  irregular. 


126 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


Class  III. — Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  si  or  i. 
286.  Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  si. 


I. 

Principal  Parts  in  : io, 

ire,  si. 

tmn. 

Farcio, 

farcire. 

farsi, 

j fartum, 

\ farctum, 

to  stuff. 

Compounds  thus : confercio.  Ire,  confersi,  confertum. 

Fulcio, 

Haurio,^ 

fulcire, 

haurire. 

fulsi, 

hausi, 

fultum,  to  prop. 

haustum,  hausum,  to  draw. 

Sancio, 

Sarcio, 

Sepio, 

Vincio, 

sancire, 

sarcire, 

sepire, 

vincire, 

sanxi, 

sarsi, 

sepsi, 

vinxi, 

j sancitum, 

( sanctum, 
sartum, 
septum, 
vinctum. 

to  ratify. 

to  patch, 
to  hedge  in. 
to  hind. 

II 

. Principal 

Parts  in  : io, 

ire,  si. 

sum. 

Raucio, 

Sentio, 

raucire, 

sentire, 

rausi, 

sensi, 

rausum, 
sensum, 2 

to  he  hoarse, 
to  feel. 

287.  Stem  in  a Consonant  : Perfect  in  i. 

I.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Yowel. 

Venio,  venire,  veni,  ventum,  to  come. 

So  compounds:  advenio^  convenio^  devenio.,  invenio.,  obvenio^  pervenio,  etc. 


II.  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

Comperio, 

comperire. 

comperi,  compertum. 

to  learn. 

Reperio, 

reperire. 

reperi,  repertum. 

io  find. 

288. 

Deponent  Verbs. 

1.  Regular. 

Blandior, 

iri. 

blanditus  sum. 

to  flatter. 

Largior, 

iri. 

largitus  sum. 

to  hestow. 

Mentior, 

iri. 

mentitus  sum. 

to  lie. 

Molior, 

iri. 

molitus  sum. 

to  strive. 

Partior, 

iri. 

partitus  sum, 

to  divide. 

Impertior,  Iri,  impertitus  sum ; so  dispertior. 

P6tior,3 

iri. 

potitus  sum. 

to  obtain. 

Sortior, 

iri, 

sortitus  sum, 

to  draw  lots. 

2.  Irregular. 

Assentior,^ 

iri. 

assensus  sum. 

to  assent. 

1 The  stem  of  haurio  is  haue.  The  Present  adds  i and  changes  s to  r between  two 
vowels.  In  hausi  and  hausum,  s stands  for  ss— hausi  for  haus-si — and  is  therefore  not 
changed.  See  258, 1.  5. 

2 Compound  assentio  has  a deponent  form  assentior.  See  288,  2. 

3 In  the  Pres.  Ind.  and  Subj.,  forms  of  Conj.  III.  occur. 

4 Compounded  of  cld  and  sentio.  See  sentio,  286,  II. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


127 


Experior, 

Matior, 


to  try. 
to  measure. 

to  await. 

to  begin, 
to  rise. 

or^rer. 


Iri,  expertus  sum, 

mensus  sum, 

_ j oppertus  sum. 

Opperior,  | opperltus  sum. 

Ordior 

Xri  ortus  sum, 

P»t.  6rUarux.-Vves.  Ind.  Conj.  III.,  irSris,  oritur.  Imp.  Subj.,  6rlrer 
—So  compounds,  but  ddonor  foUows  Conj.  IT. 

lEREGULAR  VERBS. 

/U-  289.  A few  verbs  which  have  special  irregularities  are 
^called  by  way  of  preeminence  Irregular  or  Anomalous 
Verbs.  They  are 

sum,  e:lo,  firo,  vi)lo,  flo,  eo,  queo, 
and  their  compounds. 

'7^  290.  Shm,  I am,  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conju-ation  of  mm  has  been  already  given  (204) ; its  numerous 
compounds— a5s«OT,'  adsum,  disum,  praesum,'  etc.— except  possum  and 
prosum.^  ure  conjugated  in  th.e  same  way. 

II.  Posshm,  posse,  pStui,  to  he  able. 

Indicative. 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Fut. 
Perf. 
V Plup. 


SINGULAR. 

possum,  potes. 
poteram 
potero ; 
potui ; 
potueram ; 


Fut.  Perf.  potuero ; 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 


possim 
possem ; 
potuerim ; 
potuissem ; 
Infinitive 
Pres.  posse. 


PLURAL. 

potest;  possumiis,  potestis,  possunt, 
poteramus, 
poterimus, 
potuimus, 
potueramus, 
potuerimus. 
Subjunctive. 

possis,  possit;  possimus,  possitis,  possint, 
possemus, 
potuerimus, 
potuissemus. 

Participle. 

Pres.  potens  {as  an  adjective). 


Perf.  potuisse. 

1.  Co^osiTiou.-Posmm  is  compounded  of  able,  and  «^^o 

parts  are  sometimes  separated,  and  then  potU  is  indeclinable:  poUs  mm,  p 
siimus^  etc.  . 

lAbmm^u^raesum,  like  pose»»,  have  Pres.  Participles,  aisem  pratens. 
a Indected  re^arly  through  the  different  persons ; poUram,  potlras,  poterat,  etc. 
So  also  in  the  other  tenses;  potui,  potuisti,  etc. 


128 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


2.  Ierbgularities. — In  possum  observe 

1)  That  potis  drops  is^  and  that  t is  assimilated  before  s:  possum  forpotsum. 

2)  That/ of  the  simple  is  dropped  after  potui  for  potfui. 

8)  That  the  Infin.  posse  and  Subj.  possem  are  shortened  forms  for  potesse  and 
potessem,^ 

8.  Old  and  Rare  Forms.  See  204,  2. 

III.  Frosum^  I profit,  is  compounded  of  pro^  prod^  for,  and 
smn,  to  be.  It  retains  d when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  e: 
prosum^  prodh^  prodest^  etc.  Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  sum. 


129 


V 


V 

X Fut. 

V Perf. 
X Plup. 


SINGULAR, 
feram ; 
tuli ; 

tiileram  * 


^RKEGUIh)0  verbs. 


>J  Put.  Perf.  tuiero ; ' 


PLURAL, 
feremus.  . 
tulimus.-  y 
tuleramus, 
f^tulerimus. 

’UB  JtTNGTI  VE. 


V Pres. 

>J  Imp. 
sA  Perf. 

X Plup. 

feram ; 
ferrem ; 
tulerim  ; 
tulissem ; 

, feramus. 

V y ferremus.^ 

^ tulerimus. 

tulissemus. 

Imperative. 

. ' Pres. 
Fut. 

V 

f^r;2 
fert6, 
ferto ; 

ferte. 

fertote. 

^'^"feuntO. 

Ppjjs. 

Perf. 

Fut. 


Infinitive. 

ferrS.^ 
tulisse, 
laturus  esse. 

Gerund. 

ferendi, 
ferendo, 
ferendum, 
ferendo. 


/ i 


PARTI.CIPLE. 
Pres.  fSre^ 

Fut.  laturus. 
Supine. 


Acc.  latum. 
AbL  latu. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

\j 


to  be  borne. 


fer5r,  ferri,  latus  siim, 

Indicative. 

feror,  ferris,  fertur;®  ferimur,  fSrimlni,  fSruntur. 


fSrebSr; 
ferar ; 
latiis  sum ; 
latus  eram ; 
. Fut.  Perf.  latus  ero ; 


Pres. 


ferar; 


ferebamur, 
feremur, 
lati  siimus, 
lati  eramiis. 
lati  erimiis. 

Subjunctive. 

feramur. 


I Ferrem,  etc.,  tor^rgrem,  etc. ; ferre  ior  feriri  (e  droPPfd)-  , 

» I^r  tovfri;  feHo,feni,ferme,torfmi,mto,feMoie  (»  dropped). 

5 FerHs  tor  frir^s  ,*  fertiXr  tor  fi^tHr. 

If 


t; 


XD 


130 

IRREGULAR 

VERBS. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Imp. 

ferrer ; ^ 

ferremur. 

Perp. 

latiis  sim ; 

lati  simus. 

Plup. 

latiis  essem ; 

lati  essemiis. 

Imperative. 

PRES. 

ferre ; ' 

ferimini. 

Fut. 

fertor. 

— 

fertor ; 

feruntor. 

Infinitive 

, 

Participle. 

Pres. 

ferri.  ^ 

Perf. 

latiis  essg. 

Perf.  latiis. 

Fut. 

latum  Irl. 

Ger.  ferendus. 

1.  Irregularities.— 

■Fero  has  two  principal  irregularities : 

1)  It  forms  its  Perf.  and  Sup.  tuli  (rarely  tetuli)  and  latum  from  obso- 

lete  stems. 

2)  It  drops  the  connecting  vowel  e or  i before  r,  s,  and  t. 

2.  Compounds  of  fero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a 

few  of  them  the  preposition  suffers  a 

euphonic  change : 

db^ 

aufero, 

auferre. 

abstuli. 

ablatum. 

ad- 

affero, 

afferre. 

attuli, 

allatum. 

con- 

confero, 

conferre 

, contuli. 

collatum. 

dis— 

differo. 

differre. 

distuli, 

dilatum. 

ex- 

effero, 

efferre. 

extuli. 

elatum. 

in- 

infero. 

inferre. 

intuli. 

illatum. 

oh- 

offero, 

offerre. 

obtuli. 

oblatum. 

sub- 

suffero, 

sufferre. 

sustuli. 

sublatum. 

Sustuli  and  sublatum  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  suffero^  to  hear,  but  they 
s'lpply  the  Perf.  and  Sup.  of  tollo^  to  raise.  See  273, 1. 1. 


293.  V61o, 
Nol5, 
Malo, 

Pres.  volo, 
vis, 
vult ; 
volumus, 
vultis, 

' -volunt. 


velle,  volui, 

nolle,  nolui, 

malle,  malui. 

Indicative. 
nolo, 
non  vis, 
non  vult ; 
nolumus, 
non  vultis, 
nolunt. 


to  ha  willing, 
to  be  nnwilling. 
to  prefer. 

malo, 

mavis, 

mavult; 

malumus, 

mavultis, 

malunt. 


^ Ferrer ^ etc.,  for  ferMr^  etc.;  ferris  ior  ; fertbr  for /Zntdr ; ferri  ior 

fer^rl^ferl. 


IKREGTJLAR  VERBS. 


131 


Imp. 

volebam. 

Fut. 

volam. 

Perf. 

volui. 

Plup. 

volae  rSm. 

Fut.  Perf. 

voluero. 

Pres. 

velim.* 

Imp. 

vellem.2 

Perf. 

voluerim. 

Plup, 

voluissem. 

nolebSm. 

nolam. 

nolui. 

nolueram. 

noluero. 

Subjunctive. 

nolim. 

nollem. 

noluerim, 

noluissem. 


malebam. 

malam. 

malui. 

malueram, 

maluero. 


malim. 

mallem, 

maluerim. 

maluissem. 


Imperative. 
P.  noli,  nolite. 

F.  nolito,  nolitote, 

nolito ; nolunto. 


Infinitive. 


Pres. 

velle. 

I nolle.  1 

malle. 

Perf. 

voluisse. 

1 noluisse.  1 

maluissS, 

Participle. 

Pres. 

volens. 

1 nolens. 

1. 

The  stem  of  volo  is  vol  with  variable  stem-vowel. 

b,  b,  u. 

2.  Nolo  is  compounded  of  ne  or  non  and  volo  ; malo,  of  magis  and  v^lo. 

3.  Rare  Forms.— (1)  Of  yolo:  volt,  voltis,  for  vult,  vultis  ; sis,  sultis, 
for  si  vis,  si  vultis  ; virH  for  visne.—(2)  Of  Nor.o : nevis,  nevult  {nevolt), 
nevelle,  for  non  {««)  vis,  non  (ne)  vult,  nolle.— (Z)  Of  malo  : mavSlo,  mavelim, 
mavellem,  for  mdlo,  mdlim,  mallem. 

294.  Fi5,  fieri,  factiis  siim,  to  become,  he  made.^ 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Fut. 


SINGULAR. 

fio,  fis,  fit ; 
fiebam ; 
fiam ; 


Indicative. 

PLURAL. 

fimus,  fitis,  fiunt. 

fiebamiis. 

fiemus. 


1 Yelim  is  inflected  like  sim,  and  vellent  like  essem. 

2 Vellem  and  velle  are  syncopated  forms  for  veler em,  velere;  e is  dropped  andr 
assimilated ; velerem,  velrem,  vellem ; velere,  velre,  velle.  So  nollem  and  nolle,  for 
noVerem  and  nolere  ^ mallem  and  malle,  for  molerem  and  molere. 

3 Compounds  of  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  confit,  defit,  and  infit 
are  defective.  See  297,  III.  2. 

7 


132 


lEEEGULAR  VERBS. 


SINGULAR. 

Perf.  factiis  sum ; 

Plup.  factus  eram ; 

Put.  Perf.  factiis  ero ; 


PLURAL* 

fact!  siimus, 
facti  eramus, 
facti  erimiis. 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup, 


Pres, 


Subjunctive. 

flam ; fiamus, 

fierem ; fieremus, 

factus  sim  ; facti  simiis, 

factiis  essem  ; facti  essemus. 


fi; 


Imperative. 

1 fits. 


Infinitive. 
Pres.  fieri. 

Perf.  factus  esse. 


P ARTICIPLEc 
Perf.  factus. 


Put. 

factum  iiT. 

Ger.  faciendus. 

295. 

E5, 

iie,  ivi,  itum,  to  go. 

Indicative. 

Pres. 

eo,  is,  it ; 
ibam ; / 
ibo; 

imiis,  itis,  eunt. 

Imp. 

ibamus. 

Put. 

ibimiis. 

Perf. 

ivi; 

ivimus. 

Plup. 

iveram ; 

iveramus. 

Put.  Perf. 

ivero ; 

iverimus. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres. 

eam ; 

eamiis. 

Imp. 

irem ; 

iremus. 

Perf. 

iverim ; 

iverimus. 

Plup. 

ivissem ; 

ivissgmiis. 

Imperative. 

Pres. 

i; 

ite. 

Put. 

ito, 

itote, 

ito; 

eunto. 

Infinitive 

. Participle. 

Pres. 

ire. 

Pres.  iens.  Gen.  euntis. 

Perf. 

ivisse. 

Put. 

iturus  essS. 

Put.  ituriis. 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


13 


Gerund. 

Supine 

Gen. 

eundl. 

Bat. 

eundo. 

Acc. 

eundum. 

Acc.  itiim. 

AM. 

eundo. 

AM.  Itu. 

1.  Irregularities.— is  a verb  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  but  it  forms 
the  Sup.  with  a short  vowel  {itum)  and  is  irregular  in  several  parts  of  the 
present  system.  It  admits  contraction  according  to  234 : istis  for  ^v^st^s^  etc. 

2.  Passive  Infinitive.— as  an  intransitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive, 
except  when  used  impersonally  in  the  third  singular,  Uur,  iUtur,  etc. 
(301, 1),  but  iri,  the  Pass.  Infin.,  occurs  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  Fut.  Intin. 
Pass,  of  the  regular  conjugations : amatum  iri^  etc. 

8.  Compounds  of  are  generally  conjugated  like  but  shorten  Im 
into  ii.—  Veneo  {venum  eo)  has  sometimes  'venieham  for  'venlbam.  ^ Many 
compounds  want  the  supine,  and  a few  admit  in  the  Fut.  a rare  form  in  eam^ 

ies^  iet.  . 

Transitive  compounds  have  also  the  Passive : adeo^  to  approach,  adeor^ 

adlris^  adltur^  etc. 

Ambio  is  regular,  like  audio^  though  ambibam  for  ambiebam  occurs. 
290.  Queo^  quire^  quivi^  quitum^  to  be  able,  and  nequeo^  nequire^ 
nequivi  {ii\  nequitum^  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  eo,  but  they  want 
the  Imperative  and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense.^ 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

297.  Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important.* 


I.  Present  System  wanting. 

Coepi,  I have  begun,  Memini,  I remember,  Odi,  I hate. 


Indicative. 


Perf.  coepl. 

m 5 mini. 

oJl. 

Plup.  coeperSm. 

memineram. 

oderam. 

Fut.  Perf.  coepero. 

mSminero. 

odSro. 

Subjunctive. 

Perf.  coeperim. 

1 meminerim. 

1 oderim. 

Plup.  coepissem. 

1 meminissem. 

1 odissem. 

1 A passive  form  qultur^  nequltur^  etc.,  sometimes  occurs  before  a Pass.  Infin. 

2 Many,  which  want  the  Perf.  or  Sup.  or  both,  have  been  mentioned  under  the 
Classification  of  V erbs.  See  259  to  288. 


\ 


134 

DEPECTIYE  VERBS. 

Imperative. 

S.  memento.  1 

P.  mementote.  | 

Infinitive. 

Perf. 

coepiss§. 

1 meminisse. 

1 odissS. 

Put. 

coepturus  esse. 

1 osuriis  esse. 

Participle. 

Perf. 

coeptiis. 

osus.* 

Put. 

coepturiis. 

1 osurus. 

1.  Passive  Poem. — With  passive  infinitives  coepi  generally  takes  the 
passive  form : coeptus  sum,  hram,  etc.  The  Part,  coeptus  is  passive  in 
sense. 

2.  Present  in  Sense. — Memini  and  odi  are  present  in  sense ; hence  in 
the  Pluperf.  and  Put.  Perf.  they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperf.  and  Put. — 
EM,  I know,  Perf.  of  nosco,  to  learn,  and  consueri,  I am  wont,  Perf.  of 
consuesco,  to  accustom  one’s  self,  are  also  present  in  sense. 


II.  Parts  of  each  System  waxtixg. 


1. 

Aio,  I say,  say  yes, 

2 

IXDIC. 

Pres,  aio,  ais,® 

ait ; 

— 

— 

aiunt. 

Lnp.  aiebam,  -ebas, 

-ebat ; 

-ebamiis. 

-ebatis, 

-ebant.^ 

Perf.  

ait ; 

— 

— 

— 

SUBJ. 

Pres.  aias, 

aiSt ; 

— 

— 

aiant. 

Imper. 

Pres,  al  {rare). 

Part. 

Pres,  tliens  {as  adjective). 

o 

/V. 

Inquam,  Isay, 

Indio. 

Pres,  inquam,  inquis, 

inquit ; 

in  quimus, 

inquitis. 

inquiunt. 

Imp.  

inquiebSt : 

.5  

— 

— 

Put.  inquies. 

inquiet ; 

— 

— 

— 

Perf.  inquistl. 

inquit ; 

— 

— 

— 

Infer.  Pres,  inque.  Put.  inquito. 


1 0ms  is  active  in  sense,  hating,  but  is  rare  except  in  compounds : exosus,  perosus. 

2 In  this  verb  a and  i do  not  form  a diphthong ; before  a vowel  the  i has  the  sound 
of  y.  d-yo,  a/ -is.  See  7,  4,  4). 

3 The  interrogative  form  aisne  is  often  shortened  into  ain\ 

4 Alham,  aihas,  etc.,  occur  in  comedy. 

® Also  written  inquihat. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


135 


3.  Fari,  to  speaks 


Indic. 

Pres.  

— 

fatur ; 

— 



Fut.  fabor. 

— 

fabitur ; 

— 

— 

Perf.  fatiis  sum. 

es. 

est ; 

fati  sumiis. 

estis. 

sunt. 

Plup.  fatus  eram. 

eras. 

erat ; 

fati  eramus. 

eratis. 

erant. 

SuBJ. 

Perf.  fatus  sim. 

sis. 

sit ; 

fati  simus. 

sitis. 

sint. 

Plup.  fatus  essem. 

esses. 

esset; 

fati  essemus. 

essetis. 

essent. 

Imper.  Pres,  fare. 

Infin.  Pres.  farl. 

Part.  Pres,  (fans)  fantis  ; Perf.  fatus ; Ger.  fandus. 
Gerund,  Gen.  and  Abl.  fandi,  do.  Supine,  Ahl.  fatu. 


IIL  Imperatives  and  Isolated  Forms. 
1.  Imperatites. — ave,  avete;  aveto;  Inf.  avgre,  hail. 


salve,  salvete,  salveto ; ^ 
cedo,  cette, 
apage, 

2.  Isolated  Forms. 


Put. 


Sub.  Pres,  Imp. 
confiat,  confieret, 
defiat,  


Indic.  Pres, 

confit,  

defit,  defiunt,  defiet, 

infit,  infiunt,  

Sub.  Imp.  forem,  fores,  foret,  

Ind.  Pres.  ovat.  Part,  ovans, 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso,  quaesumfis,'^ 


salvere,  hail. 

tell  me^  give  me. 
begone. 

Infin. 

confieri,  io  be  done, 
defieri,  to  be  wanting, 
to  begin. 

forent.  Inf.  fdre.^ 

he  rejoices, 

I pray. 


IMPEESONAL  VERBS. 

298,  Impersonal  Verbs  never  admit  a personal  subject. 
They  correspond  to  the  English  Impersonal  with  it:  licet, 
it  is  lawful,  6portet,  it  behooves."  ^ They  are  conjugated 
like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present 
and  Perfect  Infinitive. 

299.  Strictly  Impersonal  are  only  : 

1 Fdri  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.  Compounds  have  some  forms  not  found  m the 
simple:  affamur,  affamini,  affalar;  effaberis. 

2 The  Fut.  saMMs  is  also  used  for  the  Imperat. 

3 Forem  = essem : fore  = futurum  esse.  See  204,  2. 

4 Old  forms  for  quaero  and  quaerimus. 

6 The  real  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause:  hoc  fieri  oportet,  that  this 
should  be  done  is  necessary. 


136 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


Decet,  decuit,  it  becomes} 


it  grieves. 


Liquet,  licuit,  it  is  evidenti 


( piiduit,  . , 

Pudet,  •<  . it  shames, 

( puditum  est. 


Paenitet,  paemtuit,  it  causes  re- 
gret ; paenitet  me,  I repent. 


it  shames. 


Miseret,  miseritum  est,  it  excites  pity  ; Taedet,  ; pertaedet,  per- 


me  miseret,  I pity.  taesiim  est. 

Oportet,  oportuit,  it  behooves. 


1.  Participles  are  generally  wanting,  but  a few  occur,  though  with  a 

somewhat  modified  sense : (1)  from  libet  : Ubens.,  willing ; (2)  from  licet  : 
licens^  free;  allowed ; (3)  from  paenitet:  penitent ; paeni- 

tendus.,  to  be  repented  of;  (4)  from  pudet;  yudens.^  modest;  pudendus,^ 
shameful. 

2.  Gerunds  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  in  rare  instances : paerii- 
tendum.^  pudendd. 

300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  des- 
ignate the  changes  of  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature ; 

Pulmmat,  it  lightens ; grandmSt,  it  hails;  lucescit,  it  grows  light; 
pluit,  it  rains  ; rorat,  dew  falls  ; tonat,  it  thunders. 

801.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 

Accidit,  it  happens  ; apparet,  it  appears  ; constat,  it  is  evident ; con- 
tingit, it  happens  ; delectat,  it  delights  ; dolet,  it  grieves  ; interest,  it  con- 
cerns ; juvat,  it  delights  ; patet,  it  is  plain  ; placet,  it  pleases  ; praestat, 
it  is  better  ; refert,  it  concerns. 

1.  In  the  Passive  Voice  intransitive  verbs  can  only  be  used  imper- 
sonally. The  participle  is  then  neuter : 

Mihi  creditur,  it  is  credited  to  me,  I am  believed ; tibi  creditur,  you  are 
believed ; creditum  est,  it  was  believed  ; certatur,  it  is  contended ; curritur, 
there  is  running,  people  run  ; pugnatur,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight ; 
vivitur,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (232)  is  often  used  imper- 
sonally. The  participle  is  then  neuter: 

Mihi  scribendum  est,  I must  write  ; tibi  scribendum  est,  you  must  write  ; 
illi  scribendum  est,  he  must  write. 


I These  four  occur  in  the  third  person  plural,  hut  without  a personal  subject. 


PAETICLES. 


137 


CHAPTER  V. 

PARTICLES. 

303.  The  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes 
called  Particles:  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition.,  the  Con- 
junction, and  the  Interjection. 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  : cellrmr 
currere,  to  run  swiftly  ; tdm  cUer,  so  swift ; tain  celeriter, 
SO  swiftly. 

304.  Adverbs  may  be  divided,  according  to  their  sig- 
nification, into  four  principal  classes  ; 

I.  Adyeebs  of  Place. 


Hic, 

lllic, 

Istic, 

ubi, 


Hodie, 

ibi, 

jam, 

Jamdiu, 


Adeo, 

aliter, 

ita, 

magis. 


here  ; 
there  ; 
there  ; 
where? 


hue, 

illue, 

istuc, 

quo. 


hither  ; 
thither  ; 
thither  ; 
whither  ? 


to-day. 

then. 

now. 

long  since. 


11.  Adyeebs  of  Time. 

Rondum, 
nunc, 
nunquam, 
olim. 


not  yet, 
now. 
never, 
formerly. 


liinc. 

hence. 

illinc. 

thence. 

istinc. 

thence. 

unde, 

whence? 

L 

saepe, 

semel. 

often. 

once. 

tum. 

then. 

unquam, 

III.  Adyeebs  of  Manner,  Means,  Degree. 


ever. 


so. 

otherwise. 

so. 

more. 


paene, 

palam, 

prorsus, 

rite. 


almost. 

openly. 

wholly. 

rightly. 


sic, 

ut, 

valde. 


so. 

as. 

much. 

scarcely. 


IV.  Adyeebs  of  Cause,  Inference. 

Cur,  why  ? eo,  for  this  reason. 

quare,  wherefore.  ideo,  on  this  account. 

quamobrem,  wherefore.  idcirco,  therefore. 

quapropter,  wherefore.  propterea,  therefore. 

1.  For  Interrogative  Particles,  see  346,  II.  1 and  2. 

2.  For  Negative  Particles,  see  684  and  68A 


138 


ADVEEBS.  FKEPOSITIOXS. 


305,  CoMPAEisoi^-. — Most  Adverbs  are  derived  from 
adjectives,  and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  compari- 
son. The  comparative  is  the  neuter  singular  of  the  adjec- 
tive, and  the  superlative  changes  the  ending  us  of  the 
adjective  into  § : 


altus,  altior, 

alte,  altius, 

prudens,  prudentior, 

prudenter,  prudentius. 


altissimus,  iofty. 

altissime,  loftily, 

prudentissimus,  prudent. 

prudentissime,  prudently. 


1.  Magis  and  Maxime. — When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  magis 
and  maxime.^  the  adverb  is  compared  in  the  same  way : 


egregius,  magis  egregius,  maxime  egregius,  excellent 

egregie,  magis  egregie,  maxime  egregie,  excellently. 

2.  Irregular  Comparison. — When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  ad- 
verb has  the  same  irregularity : 


bonus,  meiior,  optimus,  good. 

bene,  melius,  optime,  well. 

male,  pejus,  pessime,  hadly. 


3.  Defective  Comparison. — When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  ad- 
verb is  generally  defective : 

deterior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

deterius,  deterrime,  worse. 

novus,  novissimus,  new. 

nove,  novissime,  newly. 

4.  Compared.— A few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 


diu,  diutius, 

saepe,  saepius, 

satis,  satius, 

nuper,  


diutissime, 

saepissime, 


nuperrime. 


for  a long  time, 
often, 
sufficiently, 
recently. 


6.  Mot  compared. — Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also 
those  from  adjectives  incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared: 
here ; nunc.^  now ; vidgariter^  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  o or  um  are  used  in  a few  adverbs : primo^  primum^ 
potissimum. 

PEEPOSITIOMS. 


306.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows 
the  relations  of  objects  to  each  other  : m Italia  esse^  to  be 
in  Italy  ; ante  me^  before  me.  See  433-435. 

307.  Inseparable  Prepositions. — Amhi^  amh^  around,  about;  dis^ 
dt  asunder ; re,  rec?,  back ; se,  sec?,  aside,  apart ; and  re,  not,  are  called  in- 
separable prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in  composition. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


139 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

308.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives ; pater  -ETfllius, 
the  father  and  son ; ptiter  xvTjilius,  the  father  or  son. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  divided,  according  to  their  use, 
into  two  classes  : 

I.  Coordinate  Conjunctions,— which  connect  similar 
constructions:  mor  voluptasque,  labor  and  pleasure  ; Car- 

, thaginem  cepit  ae  dilruit,  he  took  and  destroyed  Carthage. 

II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions,— which  connect  subor- 
dinate with  principal  constructions  : Jiaee  dUm  coUigwtt, 
efagit,  while  they  collect  these  things,  he  escapes. 

I,  Coordinate  Conjunctions. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions  comprise  five  subdivi- 

y sions : 

y 1.  Copulative  Conjunctions,  denoting  union  : 

Et,  quS,  atquS,  ac,  and.  Etiam,  quoqug,  also.  Neque,  nSc,  aiid  not. 
jST.tqug— nSquS,  nec— nee,  nequS— neo,  neither-— nor. 

.p  2.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions,  denoting  separation  . 

^ ' Aut,  vel,  vS,  sivS  (seu),  or.  Aut— aut,  vSl— vSI,  cither— or.  Sive— 
sivo,  either — or, 

3.  Adversative  Conjunctions,  denoting  opposition: 
Sed,  autem,  verum,  vero,  hut.  At,  but,  on  the  contrary.  Atqui, 

rather.  Ceterum,  hut  still.  TSmSn,  yet. 

4.  Illative  Conjunctions,  denoting  inference : 

Ergo,  igitur,  inde,  proinde,  itaque,  hence,  therefore.  See  also  587,  IV.  2. 

5.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 

Nam,  namque,  enlm,  etenim,  for. 

II.  Subordinate  Conjunctions. 

311.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  comprise  eight  subdi- 
visions : 

1,  Temporal  Conjunctions,  denoting  time  : 

Quando,  quum,  «>Am.  Ut,  fib!,  as,  wAm.  Quum  primfim,  fit  primum, 

fibi  prImum,  simfil,  slmfilac,  simfilatquS,  as  soon  as.  Dfim,  donee,  quoad, 


140 


COXJUXCTIOXS.  lOTERJECTIOXS. 


cjuamdiUj  whilc^  until^  as  long  as.  AntGCjUdnij  prius(][uanij  befove.  Postca- 
quam,  after. 

2.  Comparative  Conjuis^ctions,  denoting  comparison  : 

Ut,  uti,  sicut,  sicutl,  055,  SO  as.  V Glut,  just  as.  Praeiit,  proiit,  ac- 
cording as,  in  comparison  with.  Quam,  «5.  Tanquam,  quasi,  ut  si,  ac  si, 
VGlut  sl,  as  if. 

3.  Conditional  Conjunctions,  denoting  condition: 

Sr,  if  Si  non,  nisi,  nl,  if  not.  Sin,  hut  if.  Si  quidem,  if  indeed. 
Si  modo,  diim,  modo,  dummodo,  if  only. 

4.  Concessive  Conjunctions,  denoting  concession: 

Quamquam,  licet,  quiim,  although.  Etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi,  even  if. 
Quamvis,  quantumvis,  quantumlibet,  however  much,  although.  Ut,  grant 
that.  Ne,  grant  that  not. 

5.  Final  Conjunctions,  denoting  purpose  or  end: 

Ut,  iiti,  that,  in  order  that.  NS,  neve  (neu),  that  not.  Quo,  that. 
Quominus,  that  not. 

6.  Consecutive  Conjunctions,  denoting  consequence 
or  result  : 

Ut,  so  that.  Ut  non,  quin,  so  that  not. 

7.  CauSxVl  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 

Quia,  quod,  because.  Quiim,  since.  Quoniam,  quando,  quandoqui- 
dem, siquidem,  since  indeed. 

8.  Interrogative  Conjunctions,  denoting  inquiry  : 

Ne,  nonne,  num,  utriim,  an,  whether.  An  non,  necne,  or  not. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expres- 
sions of  feeling  or  as  mere  marks  of  address.  They  may 
express 

1.  Astonishment : 6,  hem.,  ehem,  hui,  atdt,  pdpae,  vdh,  en,  ecc^. 

2.  Joy : id,  eu,  evoe. 

3.  Sorrow : vae,  hei,  heu,  eheu,  ohe,  dh,  au,  pro  or  proh. 

4.  Disgust : aha,  phul,  dpdge. 

6.  Calling:  heus,  d,  ehd,  ehodum. 

6.  Praise:  euge,  ejd,  heja. 


PORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


141 


CHAPTER  VI. 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


813.  WoEDS  may  be  formed  in  two  ways  : 

I.  By  Derivation  ; i.  e.,  by  the  addition  of  certain 

endings  to  the  stems  of  other  words  : love,  from 

{Imo,  to  love. 

II.  By  Composition  ; i.  e.,  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
words  or  their  stems  : Mnevolem,  well-wishing,  from 
well,  and  v6lens,  wishing. 

1.  Simple  and  Compound.— Words  formed  by  composition  are  called 
Compounds  ; those  not  thus  formed  are  called  Simple  Words. 

2.  Primitive  and  Derivative.— Simple  words  formed  by  derivation 
are  called  Derivatives  ; those  not  thus  formed  are  called  Primilivcs. 


DERIVATION  OF  NOUNS. 

314.  Nouns  are  derived  from  other  Nouns,  from  Ad- 
jectives, and  from  Verbs. 

l!  Nouns  from  Nouns. 


315.  Diminutives  generally  end  in 


ulus,  ula,  ulum,  culas,  cula,  culum. 


hort-ulus, 

virg-ula, 

oppid-ulum, 

flos-culus, 

parti-cula, 

munus-culum, 


a small  garden., 
a small  branchy 
a small  town., 
a small  jlower., 
a small  part., 
a small  present., 


from  hortus, 

“ virga, 

oppidum, 
“ flos, 

“ pars, 

“ munus, 


garden, 

branch. 

town. 

jlower. 

part. 

present. 


1 Ulus,  ula,  ulum,  originally  blus,  61a,  61um,  are  appended  to  a 
and  o stem’s,  and  to  Dental  and  Guttural  Stems.  When  appended  to  a 
and  o stems,  they  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 

2.  The  original  forms  blus,  bla,  <51um,  are  used  after  i or  e:  flhSlus, 
little  son,  from  filius  : filiola,  little  daughter,  irom  filia;  airiOlum,  small 


hall,  from  atrium. 

3.  El-lus,  el-la,  el-lum,  il-lus,  il-la,  il-lum,  are  used  when  the  stem 


142 


DERIYATIOIS'  OF  KOtTKS. 


of  the  primitive  ends  in  a or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r : ocel-lus^  small  eye, 
from  oculm  ; fdbel-la,  short  fable,  from  fdbula  ; vil-lum^  a little  wine, 
from  vinum. 

4.  Cillus,  cula,  culum,  are  appended  to  e,  i,  and  o stems,  and  to 
liquid  and  s-stems,  but  stems  in  u change  u into  i,  and  stems  in  on 
change  o into  u : vey^si-culuSj  g,  little  verse,  from  versus  ; homun-culus^  a 
small  man,  from  homo.  Like  nouns  in  o,  a few  other  words  form  diminm 
lives  in  wiculuSj  uncula : dv-unculus^  maternal  uncle,  from  dvus^  grand* 
father.^ 

5.  Uleus  and  cio  are  rare : equuleus^  a small  horse,  from  equus ; 
homuncio.^  a small  man,  from  homo. 


316,  Patkoxyiviics,  or  names  of 
end  in 

ides,  ides,  iades,  ades, 

IS,  els,  ias,  as. 


Tant  abides, 
Thes-Ides, 
Laert-iades, 
Thesti-ades, 


son  of  Tantalus  ; 
son  of  Theseus  ; 
son  of  Laertes  ; 
son  of  Thestius  ; 


Tantabis, 

Thes-eis, 

Laert-ias, 

Thestbas, 


descent,  generally 

masculine. 

feminine. 

daughter  of  Tantalus, 
daughter  of  Theseus, 
daughter  of  Laertes, 
daughter  of  Thestius. 


1.  These  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  stem-vowel  or  diphthong. 

2.  Ides  (i)  and  is  are  the  common  endings. 

3.  Ides  (i)  and  eis  are  used  especially  with  primitives  in  eus. 

4.  lades,  ades,  and  ias,  as,  are  used  principally  with  primitives  in 
iics^  and  in  those  in  as  and  es  of  Dec.  I. — AenMs  has  Aeneades.,  masc.,  and 
Aeneis,  fern. 

5.  Ine  and  one  are  rare  feminine  endings : Nept%n-\ne,  daughter  of 
Neptune ; /Lcrisi-one,  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

317.  Desigi^atioi!^s  of  Place  are  often  formed  with 


ndings 

^ium, 

etum,  turn, 

Ile.3 

columb-arium. 

a dovecot. 

from  columba. 

querc-etum. 

a forest  of  oaks. 

quercus. 

salic-tum. 

a thicket  of  willows. 

salix. 

bv-ile. 

a sheepfold. 

“ ovis. 

1.  Arium  designates  the  place  where  anything  is  kept,  a receptacle : 
aerarium,  treasury,  from  aes. 

2.  Etum,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the 
place  where  they  flourish : olivetum,  an  olive-grove,  from  oliva. 


1 The  syllables  el  and  il  do  not  belong’  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a slight 
change  in  the  stem : thus,  oculus,  dcul-ulus=z6cul-lu8—6cel-lus  ; vinum,  vln-ulum— 
vin-lum — vil-lum. 

^ Nube-cula,  plebe-cUla,  and  vulp^-cula,  are  formed  as  if  from  e-stems. 

8 When  appended  to  vowel-stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel, 


DEKIYATION  OF  NOtTJSTS. 


143 


3.  He,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  stall  or  fold , 
hbvile,  stall  for  cattle,  from  hos. 

318,  Derivatives  are  also  formed  with  several  other 


endings,  especially  with 


^ius,  io, 

statu-arius, 

lud-io, 

sacerdot-ium, 

servdtium, 

vir-tus, 

consul-atus. 


ium,  itium, 

a statuary^ 

a player^ 

priesthood^ 

servitude^ 

virtue^ 

consulship^ 


tus,  itu3,  atus.^ 

from  statua. 

“ ludus. 

“ sacerdos. 

servus. 

“ vir. 

“ consul. 


1.  Arius  and  io  generally  designate  one’s  occupation. 

2.  Ium  and  itium  denote  office,  condition,  or  collection : servitium^ 
servitude,  sometimes  a collection  of  servants. 

3.  Tus  and  itus  designate  some  characteristic  or  condition : virtus^ 
manliness,  virtue,  from  vir  ; juventus,  youth,  from  juvenis. 

4.  Atus  denotes  rank,  office,  collection : consulatus,  consulship,  from 
consul;  senatus,  senate,  collection  of  old  men,  from  shicx. 

5.  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns.— See  326,  2. 


II.  Nouns  from  Adjectives. 


319.  From  Adjectives  are  formed  various  Abstract 
Nouns  with  the  endings 


ia.  • itia.  itas 


diligent-ia, 

amic-itia, 

bon-itas, 

sol-itudo, 

acr-imonia. 


diligence, 

friendship, 

goodness, 

solitude, 

sharpness. 


itudo,  imonia.^ 

from  diligens. 

“ Smicus. 

“ bonus. 

“ solus. 

“ acer. 


1.  Itas,  tas,  etas. — Itas  sometimes  drops  i:  lihertds,  liberty,  from 
hher  ; Uas  is  used  with  primitives  in  ius : pidtds,  piety,  from  pius.  Some- 
times the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  slightly  changed:  fdcilis,  facultas, 
faculty;  diffMlis,  difficultas,  difficulty;  pdtens,  potestas,  power;  honestus. 


hdnestas,  honesty. 

2.  Itudo  and  itas. — A few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  these 
endings:  firmus,  firmitas,  firmitudo,  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in 
tus  generally  change  tus  into  tudo  .*  sollicitus,  sollicitudo,  solicitude. 

3.  Imonia  is  rare : Parsimonia— parcimonia,  parcus. 


1 When  appended  to  vowel-stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
This  is  true  of  all  endings  beginning  with  a vowel. 


T 


144 


DEKITATION  OF  NOUNS* 


III.  Nouns  from  Verbs. 


320.  From  the  Verb-stem  are  formed  Verbal  Nouns 
with  various  endings,  especially  with 


6r ; ium ; men,  mentum ; b^um,  culum,  brum,  crum,  trum. 


am- or, 

gaud-ium, 

orna-mentum, 

voca-bulum, 

simula-crum, 


love^ 

joy^ 

ornament^ 

appellation^ 

image^ 


from  amo. 

“ gaudeo, 

orno. 
voco. 

“ simiilo. 


1.  Or  ^ designates  the  action  or  state  denoted  by  the  verb. 

2.  Ium  ^ has  nearly  the  same  force,  but  sometimes  designates  the  thing 
done : aedificium^  edifice,  from  aedifico. 

3.  Men  and  mentum  generally  designate  the  means  of  an  action,  or 
its  involuntary  subject : flumen.,  a stream,  something  which  flows,  from 
fluo  ; agmen,  an  army  in  motion,  from  ^igo. 

A connecting  vowel  is  sometimes  used:  ydX-mentum.  The  stem  is 
sometimes  shortened  or  changed : momentum,  moving  force,  from  moveo. 

4.  B^lum,  culum,  brum,  crum,  trum,  designate  the  instrument  or 
the  place  of  the  action : vehiculum,^  vehicle,  instrument  of  the  action,  from 
veho  ; stabulum,  stall,  place  of  the  action,  from  sto. 

The  stem-vowel  is  sometimes  changed:  sepulcrum,  sepulchre,  from 


sepUio. 

5.  Ulum,  ula. — JJlum  for  culum  occurs  after  c and  g : vinc-ulum,  a 
bond,  from  vincio  ; cing-ulum,  girdle,  from  cingo.  Ula  also  occurs : 
regula,  rule,  from  rego. 

6.  Us,  a,  o,  sometimes  designate  the  agent  of  the  action : coquus,  cook, 
from  cbquo  ; scriba,  writer,  from  scribo  ; erro,  wanderer,  from  erro. 

7.  Ela,  ido,  igo,  and  a few  other  endings  also  occur : querela,  com- 
plaint, from  queror  ; cupido,  desire,  from  cupio  ; brigo,  origin,  from  orior. 


321.  From  the  Verb-stem  are  formed  Verbal  Nouns 
with  the  endings 


tbr. 

tio. 

tus, 

tura. 

amS-tor, 

lover, 

from 

amo. 

audl-tor, 

hearer. 

(( 

audio. 

mom-tio. 

advising, 

(( 

moneo. 

audl-tio, 

hearing. 

audio. 

audl-tiis, 

hearing. 

(( 

audio. 

can-tus. 

singing. 

u 

cSno. 

pic-tura. 

painting. 

u 

pingo. 

1 See  foot-note,  p.  143. 


3 With  connecting  vowel. 


DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


145 


1.  T in  these  endings  becomes  s when  added  to  stems  which  form  the 
Supine  stem  in  s:  vi-sio^  vi-sus^  sight,  vision.  See  257. 

2.  Or  denotes  the  agent  or  doer.  The  corresponding  feminine  ending 
is  trix : victor.,  conqueror ; victrix,  conqueress. 

3.  Tio,  tus,  and  tura,  form  abstract  nouns,  and  denote  the  act  itself. 


DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

822.  Derivative  adjectives  are  formed  from  Nouns, 
Adjectives,  Verbs,  and  Adverbs. 


1.  Adjectives  from  Nouns. 

823.  Fulness. — Adjectives  denoting  fulness,  abun- 
dance, supply,  generally  end  in 


osus,  blentus, 

•ulentus,  atus,  itus,  utus,  tus.^ 

amm-osus, 

full  of  courage. 

from 

Smmus. 

vin-olentus. 

full  of  wine. 

a 

vinum. 

6p-ulentus, 

opulent. 

(( 

opes. 

al-atus, 

winged. 

(( 

ala. 

turr-Uus, 

turreted. 

u 

turris. 

corn-utus. 

horned. 

u 

cornu. 

jus- tus. 

just. 

(( 

jus. 

324.  Material. — Adjectives  designating 
vrhich  anything  is  made  generally  end  in 

the  material 

eiis,  inu3. 

meu3,  nus, 

neu3,  aceus. 

icius.' 

aur-eus. 

golden. 

from 

aurum. 

fag-inus. 

of  beech. 

u 

fagus. 

fag-ineus. 

of  beech. 

a 

fagus. 

popul-nus. 

of  poplar. 

a 

populus. 

popul-neus. 

of  poplar. 

a 

populus. 

papy^r-aceils. 

of  papyrus. 

u 

papyrus. 

later-icius. 

of  brick. 

a 

ISter. 

1.  These  endings  sometimes  denote  characteristic ov  possession:  virgin- 
eus, belonging  to  a maiden. 

325.  Characteristic.— Adjectives  signifying  lelo7\g- 
ing  to^  derived  from^  generally  end  in 


1 Wben  appended  to  vowel-stems,  tliese  endings  generally  take  the  place  of  the  final 
rowel,  hut  f^-stems  retain  u before  the  ending  dsus : fructu-dsus,  fruitful. 


146 


DERIVATION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


icus,  ills,  inus 

, ius ; alis,  anus. 

, Ms,  Mus,  ensis.  ^ 

civ-icus, 

relating  to  a citizen^ 

from 

civis. 

civ-llis, 

relating  to  a citizen,^ 

a 

civis. 

equ-Inus, 

of  pertaining  to  a horse^  “ 

equus. 

reg-ius, 

royal^ 

n 

rex. 

mort-alis, 

mortal^ 

a 

mors. 

urb-anus, 

of  pertaining  to  a city^  “ 

urbs. 

salut-aris. 

salutary^ 

u 

salus. 

auxili-arius. 

auxiliary^ 

(( 

auxilium. 

for-ensis, 

forensic^ 

4i 

forum. 

1.  Ester,  itimus, 

ticus,  and  a few  other  endings  occur : camp-ester^ 

level,  from  campus  ; mar-iiimus^  maritime, 

from  mare 

; rus-ticus^  rustic, 

from  rus. 

826,  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in 

anus,  ianus,  inus; 

iacus,  icus,  ius,  ensis,  iensis. 

as,  aeus,  eus.* 

Sull-anus, 

of  Syllay 

from 

Sulla. 

Rom-anus, 

Poman^ 

n 

Roma. 

Ciceron-ianus, 

Cicerojiian^ 

il 

Cicero. 

Lat-Inus, 

Latin^ 

tl 

Latium. 

Corinth-iacus, 

Corinthian^ 

4( 

Corinthus. 

Corinth-ius, 

Corinthian^ 

H 

Corinthus. 

Britann-icus, 

British^ 

il 

Britannus. 

Cann-ensis, 

of  Cannae^ 

(( 

Cannae. 

Athen-iensis, 

Athenian^ 

(4 

Athenae. 

Fiden-as, 

of  Fidenae^ 

(4 

Fidenae. 

Smyrn-aeus, 

Bmyrnean^ 

44 

Smyrna. 

Pythagor-eus, 

Pythagorean^ 

44 

Pythagoras. 

1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  from 
Karnes  of  Persons  ; but  others  also  occur. 

2.  Patri ALs. — Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also 
used  substantively  as  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns  to  designate  the  citizens 
of  the  place:  Corinthii^  the  Corinthians;  Athenienses^  the  Athenians. 

II.  Adjectives  from  Adjectives. 

327.  Diminutives  from  other  adjectives  generally  end 
like  diminutive  nouns  (315)  in 

iilus,  ula,  ulum,  cuius,  cilia,  c^lum.^ 
long-ulus,  a,  um,  rather  long^  from  longus, 

pauper-ciilus,  a,  um,  rather  poor ^ “ pauper. 


deriyation  oe  adjectives. 


147 


1.  Olus,  ellus,  and  illus,  also  occur  as  in  nouns. 

2.  Cuius  is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:  durius-culus^  some- 
what hard,  from  durius. 

III.  Adjectives  from  Verbs. 

328.  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in 


bundus. 

cundus,  idus. 

ills,  bills, 

ax.^ 

mira-bundus. 

wondering. 

from 

miror. 

vere-cundus, 

diffident. 

u 

vereor. 

cal-idus. 

warm. 

a 

crdeo. 

pav-idus. 

fearful, 

paveo. 

doc-ilis. 

docile. 

a 

doceo. 

ama-bilis. 

worthy  of  love. 

amo. 

pugn-ax. 

pfugnacious. 

(( 

pugno. 

aud-ax. 

daring. 

a 

audeo. 

1 Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  parti- 
ciple; hViihundus  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  Part.:  laeta- 
bundus, rejoicing  greatly ; and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  character- 
istic rather  than  a single  act  or  feeling : mre-cundus,  diffident. 

2.  Idus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  lUs  and  biUs  denote  capability,  generally  in  a passive  sense: 
dmahilis,  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ; sometimes  in  an  acUve  sense : 
terribilis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror.  Bilis  is  sometimes  added 
to  the  Supine  stem : jiex-i-bilis,  flexible. 

4.  Ax  denotes  inclination,  generally  a faulty  one : Ibquax,  loquacious. 

5.  Uus,  ulus,  ticius,  and  tivus,  also  occur :— (1)  uus  in  the  sense  of 
^dus:  mc-wws, -vacant. — (2)  ulus  in  the  sense  of  ax : cred-ulus,  credulous. 

(3)  ticius  and  tivus  in  the  sense  of  the  Perf.  Part. : Jic-ticius,  feigned,  from 
Jingo  ; cap-tivus,  captive,  from  cdpio. 

IV.  Adjectives  from  Adverbs  and  Prepositions. 

329.  A few  adjectives  are  formed  from  adverbs  and 
prepositions  : 

hodiernus,  of  this  day,  from  hodie, 

contrarius,  contrary,  “ contra. 

DEPwIVATION  OF  VERBS. 

330.  Derivative  Verbs  are  formed  from  N^ouns^  Adjcc- 
tives^  and  Ve7*bs, 


1 See  319,  foot-note. 


148 


DEEIYATION  OF  VERBS, 


I.  Veres  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

331.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are 


called  Denominatives, 

They  end 

in 

Conj.  I. 

Conj.  II. 

Conj.  IV. 

o, 

eo, 

io. 

euro. 

io  cure.. 

from 

cura. 

nommo. 

to  name. 

u 

nomen. 

libero, 

to  liberate. 

iL 

liber. 

floreo, 

to  bloom. 

U 

flos. 

luceo. 

to  shine. 

it 

lux. 

albeo, 

to  be  white. 

U 

albus. 

finio, 

to  finish, 

It 

finis. 

mollio, 

to  soften. 

it 

mollis. 

1.  Denominatives  of  the  Second  Conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most 
of  the  others  are  transitive. 

2.  Asco  and  esco  occur  in  Inceptives.  See  332,  II. 

3.  Deponent.  Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  be  depo- 
nent : dominbr^  to  domineer,  from  dominus, 

IL  Verbs  from  Verbs. 

332.  I.  Frequentatives  denote  repeated  or  continued 
action.  They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  end  in  Ito, 
or  to,  sometimes  so. 


clam-ito,* 

to  exclaim. 

from 

clamo. 

vol-ito, 

to  fiit. 

ti 

volo. 

hab-ito, 

to  have  often. 

it 

habeo. 

ag-ito. 

to  put  in  motion  often, 

it 

ggo. 

can-to. 

to  sing. 

it 

cano. 

cur-so. 

to  run  about. 

it 

curro. 

1.  Primitives 

of  Conj.  I.  take  ito,  but 

contraction 

someth 

place : adju-to  for  adjuv-ito^  to  assist  often,  from  adjuvo. 

2.  So  is  used  with  primitives  which  form  the  Supine  in  sum.  See  257. 

3.  Frequentatives  may  be  formed  from  other  frequentatives : cant-ito^ 
to  sing  often,  from  can-to^  from  cdno. 

4.  Esso  and  isso  form  derivatives  which  are  generally  classed  with 
frequentatives.,  though  they  are  intensive  in  force,  denoting  earnest  rather 
than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  Conj.  III. : fdcio,  facesso,  to  do  earnestly ; 

^ Ito  takes  the  place  of  the  final  fitem-TOwel.  This  is  true  of  all  ending’s  beginning 
with  a voweL 


149 


derivation  of  verbs. 

incipio,  incipisso,  to  begin  eagerly.  The  regular  frequentatives  sometimes 
have  the  same  force : rdpio,  rapto,  to  seize  eagerly. 

II.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives  denote  the  beginning  of 
the  action.  They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in 

p asco,  I esco,  isco.^ 

\^r  gel-asco,  to  begin  to  freeze,  from  gelo,  are. 

/ ' rub-esco,  to  grow  red,  “ riibeo,  ere. 

^-’trem-isco,  to  begin  to  tremble,  ‘‘  tremo,  ere. 

' obdorm-isco,  to  fall  asleep,  ‘‘  obdormio,  Ire. 

1.  Asco  is  used  in  inceptives  from  verbs  of  Conj.  L,  and  in  a few  from 
nouns  and  adjectives : puer,  pudrasco,  to  become  a boy. 

2.  Esco  is  by  far  the  most  common  ending,  and  is  used  in  inceptives 
from  verbs  of  Conj.  II.,  and  in  many  from  nouns  and  adjectives:  durus, 
duresco,  to  grow  hard. 

III.  Desideratives  denote  a desire  to  perform  the  ac- 
tion. They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  are  formed 
from  the  Supine  stem  by  adding  urio  : 

es-urio,  to  desire  to  eat,  from  edo, 

?t-urio,  to  desire  to  buy,  “ emo, 

IV.  Diminutives  denote  a feeble  action.^ 
the  first  conjugation,  and  end  in  illo  : 

from 


esum. 

emptum. 

They  are  of 


cant-illo, 

conscrib-illo. 


to  sing  feebly, 
to  scribble. 


canto.^ 

conscribo. 


DEEIYATIOK  OF  ADVERBS. 

333.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  N^ouns^  Adjectives^ 
^Participles^  Pronouns^  and  Prepositions. 

I.  Adverbs  from  Nouns. 

334.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  Nouns 

1.  By  simply  taking  a case-ending,  as  that  of  the  ac- 
cusative, ablative,  or  locative  : 

partim,  partly ; forte,  by  chance ; jure,  with  right,  rightly ; tempore, 
tempori,  in  time  ; Mri,  yesterday. 


1 See  foot-note  on  pag-e  148, 

2 Sometimes  treated  as  Denominatives  from  supposed  Diminutive  Nouns. 


150 


DERIVATION  OF  ADVERBS. 


2.  By  taking  special  endings: 

1)  atim,  tim,  denoting  manner:  grex,  greg^atim,  by  herds;  /wr, 
fur-tim^  by  stealth. 

2)  itiis,  denoting  origin,  source:  caelum,  cacl-itus,  from  heaven; 
fundus,  fund-itus,  from  the  foundation. 

11.  Adverbs  from  Adjectives  and  Participles. 

335.  Adverbs  from  adjectives  and  participles  generally 
end  in 

ter,  iter. 

doctus,  doct-e,  learnedly ; liher,  liher-e,  freely ; elegans,  elegan-ter,  ele- 
gantly ; dmans,  aman-ter,  lovingly ; prudens,  pruden-ter,  prudently ; cUSr, 
celer-iter,  quickly. 

1.  Stems  in  o take  e or  iter;  some  both  e and  iter:  durus,  dur-e, 
dur-iter,  hardly. 

2.  Stems  in  nt  take  ter,  but  drop  the  final  t of  the  stem.  See  ex- 
amples. 

3.  Adverbs  are  also  formed  with  the  endings  atim,  im,  and  itus: 
singuli,  singul-atim,  one  by  one;  passus  (part.)  pass-im,  everywhere; 
divinus,  divin-itus,  divinely. 

4.  Certain  cases  of  adjectives  are  often  used  as  adverbs : 

1)  Neuter  accusatives  in  e,  um,  rarely  a:  facile,  easily;  multum, 
multa,  much. 

2)  Ablatives  in  a,  o,  is : dextra,  on  the  right ; consulto,  designedly ; 
paucis,  briefly,  in  few  words. 

3)  Accusatives  in  am : hifariam,  in  two  parts  ; multifariam,  in  many 
parts  or  places  {partem,  understood). 

5.  Numeral  Adverbs. — See  181. 

III.  Adverbs  from  Pronouns. 

336.  Various  adverbs  are  formed  from  Pronouns  ; thus 
from  hiCy  ille,  and  isle,  are  formed 


hlc. 

here  ; 

hue. 

hither  ; 

bine. 

hence. 

illic, 

there  ; 

iliuc. 

thither  ; 

illinc. 

thence. 

istic, 

there  ; 

istuc. 

thither  ; 

istinc. 

thence. 

lY.  Adverbs  from  Prepositions. 

337.  A few  adverbs  are  formed  from  Prepositions,  or 
are  at  least  related  to  them: 

intrd,,  inird,  within ; idtra,  ultro,  beyond ; in,  intus,  within ; suh,  subtus. 
beneath. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WOEDS. 


151 


COMPOSITION  OF  WOEDS. 

338.  The  elements  of  a compound  may  unite  in  three 


distinct  ways: 

I.  The  two  elements  may  unite  without  change  of  • 
form:^  cUcem-viri^  the  decemvirs,  ten  men;  ab-eo^  to  go 
away. 

II.  One  element,  generally  the  first,  may  be  put  in  an 
oblique  case,  generally  the  genitive,  dependent  upon  the 
other;  legis-lator^  legislator,  from  lex,,  legis,,  and  lator, 

III.  The  stem  of  the  first  element  may  unite  with  the 
second  element,  or  with  its  stem:  helli-gero^  to  wage  war, 
from  bellum  and  gero  / magn-arnmus,,  magnanimous,  from 
magnus  and  ammus  * frug-i~fer , fruit-bearing,  from  frux 


and  fero, 

1.  The  final  vowel  of  the  stem  is  often  dropped,  as  in  magn-ammus,  or 
changed,  as  in  helli-gero.  Sometimes  a connecting  vowel  is  inserted 
between  the  parts  of  a compound : f^ug-i-fer,  fruit-bearing. 

2.  Prepositions  in  Composition  admit  the  following  euphonic  changes. 

A,  ab,  abs:— «before  m and  v ; ahs  before  c,  p,  t;  ah  before  the 

vowels  and  the  other  consonants : a-mitto  ; abs-condo ; dh-eo,  ah-jicio. 
But  ahs  before  p drops  h : as-porto  for  ahs-porto.  Ah  becomes  au  in  au- 
fero and  aufugio. 

Ad, — unchanged  before  vowels  and  before  5,  d,  A,  j,  m,  and  v ; d gen- 
erally assimilated  before  the  other  consonants,  but  changed  to  c before  q 
and  dropped  before  gn  and  often  before  sc,  sp,  and  st : dd-eo,  ad-do,  ad- 
jungo ; af-fero,  al-ligo  ; ac-quiro,  a-gnosco  (gd  and  gnosco),  a-scendo. 

Ante, — the  original  form  anti,  retained  in  anti-cipo  and  anti-sto. 

Cirenm, — unchanged,  except  in  circu-eo. 

Cbm  for  cum, — (1)  unchanged  before  h,  m,  p:  com-hiho,  com-mitto, 
(2)  m generally  dropped  before  vowels.  A,  and  gn : co-eo,  co-haero,  co-gnosco, 
— (3)  m assimilated  before  I,  n,  r : col-ligo,  cor-rumpo, — (4)  m changed  to 
n before  the  other  consonants : con-fero,  con-gero. 


E,  ex  :—ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  A,  p,  q,  s,  t,  and  with  assimi- 
lation before/;  c generally  before  the  other  consonants  and  sometimes 
before  p and  s ; ex-eo,  ex-pdno,  effero  ; e-duco,  e-ligo,  e-polo,  e-scendo.  S 
after  ex  is  often  dropped : exspecto  or  expecto. 

In, — n assimilated  before  I,  m,  r,  changed  to  m before  h,  p ; in  other 
situations  unchanged:  il-ludo,  im-mittd;  im-huo,im-p6no ; in-eo,  in-duco. 


1 Except  of  course  euphonic  changes. 


152 


COMPOSITIOIir  OF  WORDS. 


Inter, — unchanged,  except  in  intel-ligo. 

Ob, — assimilated  before  c,  /,  p ; in  other  situations  generally  un, 
changed:  oc-ciirro^  of-ficio^  op-pono  ; oh-jicio^  oh-sto.  But  b is  dropped  in 
and  an  old  form  ohs  occurs  in  a few  words : obs-olesco,  os-tendo  for 
ohs-iendo  (b  dropped). 

Per, — unchanged,  except  in  pel-Iicio,  pel-luceo,  and  pe-jh'o. 

Post,  unchanged  except  in  pd-moerium  and  p6-merldidnus. 

Pro,  prod  \—prdd  the  usual  form  before  a vowel : prod-eo^  prdd-igo. 

Sub, — b assimilated  before  c, /,  jo,  generally  before  m and  r : dropped 
before  sp ; in  other  situations  unchanged : mc-cumbo^  sii-spicio  for  sicb- 
spicio  ; sub-eo^  sub-duco.  An  old  form  subs  shortened  to  sus  occurs  in  a 
few  words : sus-cipio^  sus-pendo. 

Trans  drops  s before  s,  and  often  ns  before  d^  n : trans-eo^  trans^ 
fero  ; iran-silio  for  trans-sVio  ; tra-do  for  irans-do  ; tra-jicio  for  tram- 
jicio  ; trd-no  for  tram-no. 

3.  Inseparable  Prepositions  (307)  also  admit  euphonic  changes: 

Ambi,  amb : — amb  before  vowels  ; ambi^  am^  or  an  before  conso- 
nants : amb-igo  ; ambX-dem^  am-puto^  an-quiro. 

Dis,  di : dXs  before  c,  jo,  s before  a vowel,  and  with  assimilation, 
before/;  di  in  most  other  situations:  dis-curro,  dis-pono,  dif-Jiuo ; di- 
duco, di-moveo.  But  dir  occurs  in  dXr-imo  and  dXr-Xbeo  (dis  and  habeo), 
and  both  dis  and  di  occur  before y.*  dis-jungo,  di-Judico. 

In, — n dropped  before  gn : i-gnosco  ; otherwise  like  the  prep,  in  above. 

Por, — r assimilated  before  I and  s ; in  other  situations  unchanged : 
pol-liceor,  pos-sXdeo,  por-rXgo. 

Red,  re : — rH  before  vowels,  before  h,  and  in  red-do  ; r^  in  other  situ- 
ations : red-eo,  rM-Xgo,  red-hXbeo  ; re-clddo,  re-vello. 

Sed,  se : sed  before  vowels,  se  before  consonants : sed-itio,  se-pono. 


339.  In  Compound  Nouns,  the  first  part  is  generally  a 
noun,  but  sometimes  an  adjective,  adverb,  or  preposition  ; 


the  second  part  i 

arti-fex, 

capri-cornus, 

aequi-noctium, 

ne-mo, 

pro-nomen. 


a verb  or  noun  : 

artist,  from 

capricorn,  “ 

equinox,  “ 

nobody,  “ 

pronoun,  “ 


ars  and  facio, 
cap  Sr  and  cornu, 
aequus  and  nox. 
ne  and  homo, 
pro  and  nomen. 


1.  Genitive  in  Compounds. — In  compounds  of  two  nouns,  or  of  a noun 
and  an  adjective,  the  first  part  is  often  a genitive:  legis-lator,  legislator; 
juris-consultus,  lawyer. 

2.  Compounds  in  fex,  c^n,  and  cbla,  are  among  the  most  important 
compounds  of  nouns  and  verbs ; fex  from,  fdcio  ; c^n  from  cdno  ; chla  from 
cblo : artX-fex,  artist ; tubX-chi,  trumpeter ; Hgri-cbla,  husbandman. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 


153 


340.  In  Compound  Adjectives,  the  first  part  is  gen- 
erally a noun,  adjective,  or  preposition,  and  the  second  a 
noun,  adjective  or  verb: 

leti-fer,  death-hearing,  from  ietum  and  fero.^ 

magn-animus,  magnanimous,  “ magnus  and  animus, 

per-facilis,  very  easy,  “ per  and  facilis. 

341,  In  Compound  Verbs  the  first  part  is  a noun, 
adjective,  verb,  adverb,  or  preposition,  and  the  second  is  a 
verb: 


aedi-fico, 

ampli-fico, 

pate-fScio, 

bene-facio, 

ab-eo, 


to  build,  from 

to  enlarge,  “ 

to  open,  “ 

to  benefit,  “ 

to  go  avmy,  “ 


aedes  and  facio, 
amplus  and  facio, 
pateo  and  facio, 
bene  and  f^cio. 
ab  and  eo. 


1.  When  the  first  part  is  a verb,  the  second  is  generally /«cm  .*  phte- 


fdcio. 

2.  When  the  first  part  is  a noun  or  adjective,  the  second  is  generally 
fitdo  or  ago.  These  verbs  then  become  fuo  and  Kgo  of  Conj.  I. : 
aedi-fico,  are,  to  build;  nav-igo,  are,  to  sail,  from  navis  and  ago. 

3.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes. 

1)  ^ short  and  e generally  become^;  habeo,  dd-hibeo  ; teneo,  con-tmeo. 
But  a sometimes  becomes  e ov  u:  carpo,  de-cerpo  ; calco,  con-culco. 

2)  Ae  becomes  i : caedo,  in-cido. 

3)  Au  generally  becomes  6 ov  u:  plaudo,  ex-plodo  ; claudo,  in-cludo. 

4.  Changes  in  Prepositions. — See  338,  2 and  3. 

342.  Compound  Adverbs  are  variously  formed,  but 
most  of  them  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 

1.  Such  as  consist  of  an  oblique  case  with  its  preposition;  ad-modum, 
very,  to  the  full  measure ; ob-viam,  in  the  way. 

2.  Such  as  consist  of  a noun  with  its  adjective : hb-die  {hoc  and  die),  to- 
day, on  this  day ; qua-re,  wherefore,  by  which  thing. 

3.  Such  as  consist  of  two  particles : dd-huc,  hitherto ; inter-dum,  some- 
times ; in-supbr,  moreover. 


PART  THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

SYNTAX  OE  SEHTEHCES. 

SECTION  I 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 

343.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

344.  A sentence  is  thought  expressed  in  language. 

345.  In  their  structure,  sentences  are  either  Simple^ 
Complex.,  or  Compound : 

I.  A Simple  Sentence  expresses  but  a single  thought : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic. 

II.  A Complex  Sentence  expresses  two  (or  more) 
thoughts  so  related  that  one  is  dependent  upon  the  other : 

Donee  eris  felix,  multos  numerabis  amicos;  So  long  as  yoti  are  pros- 
perous,  you  will  nuinber  many  friends,  Ovid. 

1.  Clauses.— In  this  example  two  simple  sentences,  (1)  “Fow  will  te  prosper- 
ous^'' and  (2)  '''‘You  will  number  many  friends^'"  are  so  united  that  the  first  only 
specifies  the  time  of  the  second:  You  will  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long 
as  you  are  prosperous.  The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Clauses  or  Members. 

2.  Principal  and  Subordinate. — The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which 
makes  complete  sense  of  itself— numerabis  amicos— called  the  Principal 
Clause;  and  the  part  which  is  dependent  upon  it — donee  eris  felix— is,  called  the 
Subordinate  Clause. 

III.  A Compound  Sentence  expresses  two  or  more  in- 
dependent thoughts : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  The  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Yirg. 

346.  In  their  use,  sentences  are  either  Declarative.,  Li' 
terrogative.,  Imperative.,  or  Exclamatory. 

I.  A Declarative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  asser- 
tion : 

Miltiades  accusatus  est,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 


155 


11.  All  Interrogative  Sentence  lias  the  form  of  a 
question : 

Quis  non  paupertatem  extimescit,  WIio  does  not  fear  poverty^  Cic 


1,  Interrogative  Words. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain 
some  interrogative  word— either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  ad- 
verb, or  one  of  the  interrogative  particles,  ne,  nonne,  num  : 

1)  Questions  with  ne  ask  for  information:  Scrlhitne,  Is  he  writing?  is 
always  thus  appended  to  some  other  word.  But  ne  appended  to  the  principal  verb 
often  suggests  the  answer  ^jes,  while  appended  to  any  other  word,  it  often  suggests 
the  answer  no.  It  is  sometimes  appended  to  utrum,  num,  or  an,  without  affecting 
their  meaning,  and  sometimes  inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum  : 

Utrum  taceamne,  an  praedicem,  Shall  I he  silent,  or  shall  I speak?  Ter. 

2)  Questions  with  nonne  expect  the  answer  yes:  Nonne  scribit.  Is  he  not 
writing  ? Non  for  nonne  indicates  surprise  that  there  should  be  any  doubt  on  the 
question : Non  mdes,  Do  you  really  not  see? 

3)  Questions  with  num  expect  the  answer  no : Num  scribit.  Is  he  writing.*' 

4)  Questions  with  an.  See  2.  4)  below. 

5)  The  interrogative  word  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes  numquid  is 
used  for  num,  and  ecquid  for  ne  or  nonne : Ecquid  mdes.  Do  you  not  see? 


2.  Double  Questions. —Double  or  disjunctive  questions  offer  a choice 
or  alternative,  and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  • 

1)  The  first  clause  has  utrum,  num,  or  ne,  and  the  second  an : 

Utrum  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est.  Is  that  your  fault  or  oui's  ? Cic. 

2)  The  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  an  or  ne  : 

Eloquar  an  sileam,  Shall  I utter  it,  or  keep  silence  ? Virg. 

3)  When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  particle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annon  or  necne: 

Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne.  Are  these  your  words  or  not  ? Cic, 

4)  By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  an.  In 


the  sense  of  or : 

An  hoc  timemus.  Or  do  we  fear  this  ? Liv. 
5)  Other  forms  are  rare. 


3.  Answers. — In  answers  the  verb  or  some  emphatic  word  is  usually 
repeated,  often  prorsus,  vero,  and  the  like  ; or  if  negative,  with  non  : 

Dixitne  causam ? Dixit.  Did  he  state  the  cause?  He  stated  it.  Cic.  Pos- 
Biimusne  tuti  esse?  Non  possumus.  Can  we  be  safe  ? We  cannot.  Cic. 

1)  Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used;  affirmatively,  sane,  etiam,  Ita,  v^ro, 
certe,  etc.,  negatively,  non,  minime,  etc. 

/J  Venitne?  Non.  Has  he  come?  No.  Plant. 

III.  An  Imperative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a com 
inaiid,  exhortation,  or  entreaty  : 


Justitiam  cole,  Cultivate  justice,  Cic. 

IV.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence 
exclamation : 


has  the  form  of  an 


156 


SIMPLE  SENTENCJESv 


SECTION  II. 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

Elements  of  Sentences. 

347.  The  simple  sentence  in  its  most  simple  form  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied  : 

1 . The  Subject,  or  that  of  which  it  speaks. 

2.  The  Pkedicate,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject : 

Cluilius  moritur,  Clmlius  dies.  Liv. 

Here  Cluilius  is  the  subject,  and  moritur  the  predicate. 

348.  The  simple  sentence  in  its  most  expanded  form 
consists  only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modi- 
fiers : 

In  his  castris  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur  ; Cluilius^  the  Alban  king^ 
dies  in  this  camp.  Liv. 

Here  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and 
in  his  castris  moritur the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

349.  Peincipal  and  Suboedinate. — The  subject  and 
predicate,  being  essential  to  the  structure  of  every  sen- 
tence, are  called  the  Principal  or  Essential  elements ; hut 
their  modifiers,  being  subordinate  to  these,  are  called  the 
Subordinate  elements. 

350.  Simple  and  Complex. — The  elements,  whether 
principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple  or  complex : 

1.  Simple.^  when  not  modified  by  other  words. 

2.  Complex.^  when  thus  modified. 

Simple  Subject. 

351.  The  subject  of  a sentence,  expressed  or  implied, 
must  be  a noun  or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a noun  v 

Rex  decrevit,  The  king  decreed.  Nep.  scrlbo,  I write.  Cic. 

Video  idem  valet,  The  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.  Quint. 

Complex  Subject. 

353.  The  subject  admits  the  following  modifiers  : 

I.  An  Adjective  : 

Populus  Romanus  decrevit.  The  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic. 

II.  A Noun  either  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  in 
the  genitive,  or  in  an  oblique  case  with  a preposition  : 


SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 


157 


Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies.  Liv.  Rex  Rutulorum^  the 
king  of  the  Rutuli,  Liv.  Liber  de  ojfic'tis^  The  book  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Modifiers  op  Nouns. — Any  noun  may  be  modified  like  the  subject. 

2.  Appositive  and  its  Subject. — The  noun  in  apposition  with  another 
is  called  an  Appositive^  and  the  other  noun  is  called  the  Subject  of  the 
appositive. 

3.  Adverbs  with  Nouns. — Sometimes  adverbs  and  adverbial  expres- 
sions occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns : 

Non  ignari  siimus  ante  malorum,  We  are  not  ignorant  of  past  misfor^ 
tunes,  Virg.  Victoria  apud  Cnidum,  The  victory  at  Cnidus.  Nep. 


Simple  Predicate. 

353.  The  simple  predicate  must  he  either  a verb  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a noun  or  adjective: 

Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Tu  es  testis, 
You  arc  a wHness.  Cic.  Eortuna  caeca  est,  Fovtu^ie  is  blind.  Cic. 

1.  Like  Sum  several  other  verbs  sometimes  unite  with  a noun  or  adjec- 
tive to  form  the  predicate.  See  362.  2.  A noun  or  adjective  thus  used  is 
called  a Predicate  Noun  or  Predicate  Adjective. 

2.  Sum  with  an  Adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate  : 

Omnia  recte  sunt,  All  things  are  right.  Cic. 

Complex  Predicate. 

854.  I.  The  Verb  admits  the  following  modifiers  : 

I.  Objective  Modifiers  : 

1.  K Direct  Object  in  the  Accusative— that  upon  which 
the  action  is  directly  exerted  : 

Miltiades  Athenas  Uberavit,  Miltiades  liheraied  Athens.  Nep. 

2.  An  Indirect  Object  in  the  Dative — that  to  or  for 
which  something  is  or  is  done  : 

Ldbori  student.  They  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes. 

3.  Combined  Objects  consisting  of  two  or  more  cases  : 

Me  rbgavit  sententiam,  He  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  ^ Pons  iter  hos- 
tibus dedit.  The  bridge  furnished  a passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv. 

II.  Adverbial  Modifiers  : 

1.  Adverbs : 

feliciter  gessit,  He  waged  wars  successfully.  Cic. 

2.  Adverbial  Expressions — consisting  of  oblique  cases 
of  nouns,  with  or  without  prepositions: 


158 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


In  his  castris  moritur,  He  dies  (where  ?)  in  this  camp.  Liv.  Vere  coiIn 
venere,  They  assembled  (when  ?)  in  the  spring.  Liv. 

355.  11.  The  Peedicate  IsToun  is  modified  in  the  va- 
rious ways  specified  for  the  subject  (352). 

356.  III.  The  Peedicate  Adjective  admits  the  fol- 
lowing modifiers : 

I.  An  Adveeb  : 

Satis  humilis  est,  He  is  sufficiently  humble.  Liv. 

II.  A Noun  in  an  oblique  case  : 

1.  Genitive : Avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  They  were  desirous  of  praise.  Cic. 

2.  Dative : Omni  aetati  mors  est  communis,  Death  is  common  to  every 
age.  Cic. 

3.  Ablative : Digni  sunt  amicitia.  They  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic. 


SECTION  III. 

COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 

357.  A Complex  sentence  differs  from  a Simple  one 
only  in  taking  a sentence  or  clause  as  one  (or  more)  of  its 
elements : 

I.  A Sentence  as  an  Element : 

‘‘Civis  Komanus  sum”  audiebatur,  “ J am  a Roman  citizen'^''  was 
heard.  Cic.  Aliquis  dicat  mihi : “ Nulla  habes  vitia ; ” Some  one  may  say 
to  me.,  “ Have  you  no  faults  i ” Hor. 

1.  In  the  first  example,  an  entire  sentence— Romanus  swm— is 
used  as  the  Subject  of  a new  sentence  ; and  in  the  second  example,  the  sen 
tence — Nulla  hales  vitia — is  the  Object  of  dicat. 

2.  Any  sentence  may  be  thus  quoted  and  introduced  without  change 
of  form  as  an  element  in  a new  sentence. 

II.  A Clause  as  an  Element : 

Traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse.  That  Homer  was  blind  has  been 
handed  down  by  tradition.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  Animus,  animus  nescit.  The 
soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

1.  In  these  examples  the  clauses  used  as  elements  have  undergone  cer- 
tain changes  to  adapt  them  to  their  subordinate  rank.  The  clause  Homerum 
caecum  fuissCf  the  subject  of  traditum  est,  if  used  as  an  independent  sen- 
tence, would  be  Homerus  caecus  fuit  / and  the  clause  Qualis  sit  animus,  the 
object  oi  nescit,  would  be  Qualis  est  animus.  What  is  th.e  soul  ? 

2.  Forms  of  Subordinate  Clauses. 

1)  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  : 

IToc  majores  dicere  audivi,  I have  heard  that  our  ancestors  said  this.  Cic. 

2)  Indirect  Questions : 


COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


159 


Quid  dies  fcrat,  incertum  cst,  What  a day  may  hring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic. 

3)  Relative  Clauses : 

Sententia,  quae  tutissima  videbatur,  The  opinion  ichich  seemed  the  safest.  Liv. 

4)  Clauses  with  Conjunctions  : 

Mos  est  ut  dicat.  It  is  his  custom  to  speak.  Cic.  Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt.  They 
are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic. 

358.  Infinitive  Clauses  sometimes  drop  tlieir  subjects: 

Dlligi  jucundum  est,  It  is  pleasant  to  he  loved.  Cic.  Ylvere  est  cogi- 
tare, To  live  is  to  think.  Cic.  See  545.  2. 

359.  Participles  often  supply  the  place  of  subordinate 
clauses. 

Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing^  or  while  he  was 
writing.  Cic.  See  576-5V8. 


SECTION  lY. 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

369.  Compound  sentences  express  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent thoughts,  and  are  of  five  varieties  : 

I.  Copulative  Sentences — in  which  two  or  more 
thoughts  are  presented  in  harmony  with  each  other : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur.  The  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Yirg. 

II.  Disjunctive  Sentences — in  which  a choice  be- 
tween two  or  more  thoughts  is  offered  : 

Audendum  est  aliquid  aut  omnia  patienda  sunt.  Something  must  he 
risked  or  all  things  must  he  endured.  Liv. 

III.  Adversative  Sentences — in  which  the  thoughts 
are  opposed  to  each  other : 

Gyges  a nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  Gyges  was  seen  hy 
no  one.,  hut  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

IV.  Illative  Sentences — which  contain  an  inference : 

Nihil  laboras,  ideo  nihil  habes  ; You  do  nothing,  therefore  you  have 
nothing.  Phaed. 

V.  Causal  Sentences^ — which  contain  a cause  or  rea^ 
son : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  enim  s5lus  ; Consultation  is  difficult,  foi 
lam  alone.  Cic. 


IGO 


COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


1.  The  CoNNECTiYES  generally  used  in  these  several  classes  of  compounds  ar*. 
the  corresponding  classes  of  conjunctions,  i.  e.,  copulati'ce^  disjunctive^  adversative^ 
illative^  and  causal  conjunctions.  See  310.  But  the  connective  is  often  omitted.  ’ 

2.  Disjunctive  Questions  have  special  connectives.  See  346.  II.  2. 

361.  Compound  sentences  are  generally  abridged  when 
their  members  have  parts  in  common.  Such  sentences 
have  compound  elements  : 

1.  Compound  Subjects : 

Aborigines  Troj unique  ducem  amisere,  The  Aborigines  and  the  Tro- 
jans lost  their  leader.  Liv. 

The  two  members  here  united  are : Aborigines  ducem  amisere  and  Trojani 
ducem  amisere;  but  as  they  have  the  same  predicate,  ducem  amisere.,  that  predi- 
cate is  expressed  but  once,  and  the  two  subjects  are  united  into  the  compound  sub- 
ject: Aborigines  Trojanlque. 

2.  Compound  Predicates : 

Romani  parant  consultantque,  The  Romans  prepare  and  consult.  Liv. 

3.  Compound  Modifiers  : 

Athenas  Gracciamque  liberavit,  He  liberated  Athens  and  Greece.  Nep. 


CHAPTEK  11. 
SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 


SECTIOI^^  I. 

AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

RULE  I— Predicate  Nouns. 

362.  A Predicate  Noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  as  its  Subject  agrees  with  it  in  case  : ' 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  lam  a messenger.  Liv.  Servius  rex  est  declaratus, 
Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Orestem  se  esse  dixit.  He  said  that  he 
was  Orestes.  Cic.  See  353. 

1.  In  Gender  and  Nu^^iber  Agreement  either  may  or  may  not 
take  place.  But 

1)  If  the  Predicate  Noun  has  different  forms  for  different  genders,  it 
must  agree  with  its  subject  in  gender  : 

Usus  magister  est,  Experience  is  an  instructor.  Cic.  Historia  est  magistra  {not 
magister).  History  is  an  instructress.  Cic. 


1 For  Pred.  Noun  denoting  a different  person  or  thing  from  its  wSubject,  see  401. 
For  convenience  of  reference  the  Rules  will  bo  presented  in  a body  on  page  274. 


AGKEEMEOT  OP  NOTOS. 


161 


2.  With  Finite  Yeebs. — Predicate  ISTouns  are  most  frequent 

. 1)  With  Sum  and  a few  intransitive  verbs  ; evado,  exsisto,  a]opdreo,d,n^ 

the  like : 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  I am  a messenger.  Liv.  Homo  magnus  evaserat,  Ile  had 
become  (turned  out)  a great  man.  Cic.  Exstitit  vindex  libertatis,  He  became  (stood 
forth)  the  defender  of  liberty.  Cic. 

2)  With  Passive  verbs  of  appointing,  making,  naming,  regarding,  es- 
teeming, and  the  like : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Mundus  civitas 
existimatur.  The  world  is  regarded  as  a state.  Cic. 

(1)  In  the  poets.  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verbs  of  a 
great  variety  of  significations.  Thus  Avith  audio  — appellor  / Kex  aiidi-sti,  You  have 
been  called  king;  i.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  Her. 

(2)  For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  373. 1. 

(3)  The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  AbL,  and  loco  or  in 
nhmero  with  the  Gen.  are  often  kindred  in  force  to  Predicate  Nouns ; hosti,  pro 
koste,  loco  hostis,  in  numero  hostium,  for  or  as  an  enemy.  See  also  Pred.  Gen.  401. 

3.  With  Infinitives,  Participles,  etc. — Predicate  Nouns  are  used  not 
only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with  Infinitives  and  Participles,  and  some- 
times without  verb  or  participle : 

Declaratus  rex  Numa,  Numa  having  been  declared  king.  Liv.  Caninio  con- 
sule, Caninius  being  consul.  Cic.  See  431,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 

1)  For  Predicate  Nominative  after  esse,  see  517. 

2)  For  Infinitive  or  Clause  as  Predicate,  see  553,  L ; 495,  3. 

RULE  n.— Appositives. 

363.  An  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  case  : 

Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  tlie  king  dies.  Liv.  Urbes  Carthago 
atque  Numantia,  the  cities  Carthage  and  Numantia.  Cic.  See  352.  2. 

1.  In  Gender  and  ISTumber  the  appositive  conforms  to  the 
same  rule  as  the  predicate  noun.  See  362.  1. 

2.  The  Subject  of  the  appositive  is  often  omitted : 

Hostis  hostem  occidere  volui,  / {ego  understood)  an  enemy  wished,  to 
slay  an  enemy.  Liv. 

3.  Force  of  Appositives. — Appositives  are  generally  kindred  in  force 
to  Relative  clauses,  but  sometimes  to  Temporal  clauses: 

Cluilius  rex,  Cluilius  (who  was)  the  king.  Liv.  Flirius  pucr  didicit,  Furius 
learned,  when  a boy,  or  as  a boy.  Cic. 

4.  Partitive  Appositive. — The  parts  are  sometimes  in  apposition  with 
the  whole : 

Duo  reges,  ille  hello,  hie  pace  civitatem  auxerunt.  Two  kings  advanced  the 
state,  the  former  by  war, the  latter  by  peace.  Liv. 

Conversely  the  whole  may  be  in  apposition  with  its  parts. 

5.  Clauses. — A noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a clause, 
ora  clause  in  apposition  with  a noun  or  pronoun.  See  445,  7,;  553,  IL 


162 


:^OMINATIVE  CASEo 


SECTIO]^  II. 


NOMINA  TIYE. 


364.  Cases. — Nouns  have  different  forms  or  cases  to 
mark  the  various  relations  in  which  they  are  used.  These 
cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  he  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows  : 


I.  Nominative, 

II.  Yocative, 

III.  Accusative, 

IV.  Dative, 

Y.  Genitive, 

YI.  Ablative, 


Case  of  the  Subject. 

Case  of  Address. 

Case  of  Direct  Object. 

Case  of  Indirect  Object. 

Case  of  Adjective  Delations. 
Case  of  Adverbial  Delations.^ 


365.  Kindred  Cases. — The  cases  naturally  arrange  themselves  in 
pairs  : the  Nominative  and  Yocative  require  no  governing  word  ; the  Ac- 
cusative and  Dative  are  the  regular  cases  of  the  Object  of  an  action  ; the 
Genitive  has  usually  the  force  of  an  Adjective,  and  the  Ablative  that  of  an 
Adverb. 


366.  NoMmATivE. — The  Nominative  is  either  the  Sub- 
ject of  a Sentence  or  in  agreement  with  another  Nomina- 
tive. 


RULE  m. — Subject  Nominative. 

367.  The  Subject  of  a Finite  Verb  is  put  in  the 
Nominative : ^ 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv.  Patent  portae.  The  gates  are 
open.  Cic.  Rex  vicit,  The  king  conquered.  Liv. 

1.  The  Subject  is  always  a substantive,  a pronoun,  or  some 
word  or  clause  used  substantively : 

Ego  reges  ejeci,  I have  banished  kings.  Cic. 

2.  Subject  Omitted. — The  subject  is  generally  omitted 

1)  When  it  is  a Personal  Pronoun,  unless  expressed  for  contrast  or 
emphasis,  and  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied  from  the  context ; 

Discipulos  mdneo,  ut  studia  ament,  I instruct  pupils  to  love  their  studies. 
Quint. 

2)  When  it  means  men,  people  : Ferunt^  They  say. 

8)  When  the  verb  is  impersonal : Pluit,  It  rains. 

3.  Yerb  Omitted. — The  Yerb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it 
can  be  readily  supplied,  especially  est  and  sunt : 


1 This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought, 
it  will  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 

2 For  the  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  see  545.  For  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with 
its  subject,  see  460. 


NOMINATIVE.  VOCATIVE. 


IG3 


Ecce  tuae  littSrae,  Lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sententiae,  There 
are  (sunt)  so  many  ojyinions.  Ter.  Consul  profectus  (est),  The  consul  set 
out,  Liv. 

1)  Fdcio  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses.  Thus  with  nihil  dliud 
(amplius,  minus,  etc.)  quam^  nihil  praeterquam  — merely,  si  nihil  dliud^ 
flnem,  etc. ; Nihil  aliud  quam  steterunt.  They  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than). 
Liv.  Also  in  brief  expressions  of  opinion ; Kecte  illc.  He  does  rightly.  Cic. 

368.  Agreement. — A Nominative  in  agreement  with 
another  nominative  is  either  a Predicate  Noun  or  an  Ap- 
positive.  See  362  and  363. 

For  the  Predicate  Nominative  after  a verb  with  ^sse,  see  547. 

SECTION  III. 

VOCATIVE. 

SULE  IV.— Case  of  Address. 

369.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is 
put  in  the  Vocative : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed^  Laelius.  Cic.  Quid  est,  Catilina,  Why  is  ity 
Catiline?  Cic.  Tuum  est,  Servi,  regnum.  The  kingdom  is  yours,  Servius. 
Liv.  0 dii  immortales,  0 immortal  gods.  Cic. 

1.  With  Interjections.— The  vocative  is  used  both  with  and  without 
interjections. 

2 Nominative  for  Vocative. — In  poetry  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the 
nominative  in  apposition  with  the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect 
the  vocative : 

Audi  tu,  pSpidus  Albanus,  ITear  Alhan  peopU.  Liv.  Here  populus  may 
be  treated  as  a Nom.  in  apposition  with  tu,  though  it  may  also  be  treated  as  an  Irieg- 
ularVoc.  See  52,3. 

8.  Vocative  for  Nominative.— Conversely  the  vocative  by  attraction 
sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where  we  should  expect  the  nominative  . 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectate  venis.  From  what  shores.  Hector,  do  you 
anxiously  awaited  come  ? Virg. 

SECTION  IV. 

accusa  tive. 

370.  The  Accusative  is  used 

I.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action. 

II.  As  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive. 

III.  In  Agreement  with  another  Accusative. 

IV.  In  an  Adverbial  Sense— with  or  without  Prepositions. 

V.  In  Exclamations— with  or  without  Interjections. 


164 


ACCUSATIVE  OF  DIRECT  OBJECT. 


L Accusative  as  Direct  Object. 

E.TJLE  V— Direct  Object. 

371.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Accusative : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic.  Libera  rem 
publicam,  Free  the  republic.  Cic.  Populi  Romani  salutem  defendite.  De- 
fend the  safety  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

1.  The  Direct  Object  may  be 

1 ) The  Object^  person  or  thing,  on  which  the  action  of  the  verb  is  di- 
rectly exerted,  as  salutem  above. 

2)  The  Effect  of  the  action,  i.  e.,  the  object  produced  by  it,  as  mun- 
dum above. 

3)  The  Cognate  Accusative.  Many  verbs,  generally  intransitive,  some- 
times become  so  far  transitive  as  to  admit  an  accusative  of  cognate  or 
kindred  meaning : 

Earn  vitam  vivSre,  to  live  that  life.  Cic.  Mirum  somniare  somnium,  to 
dream  a wonderful  dream.  Plaut.  Servitutem  servire,  to  serve  a servitude. 
Ter. 

(1)  This  accusative  is  usually  qualified  by  an  adjective  as  in  the  first  two  exam- 
ples. 

(2)  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  often  supply  the  place  of  the  Cognate  ac- 
cusative : 

Elidem  peccat,  He  makes  the  same  mistakes.  Cic.  Hoc  studet  unum,  He  studies 
this  one  thing  (this  one  study).  Hor.  Id  assentior,  I make  this  assent.  Cic,  Idem 
gloriari,  to  make  the  same  hoast.  Cic. 

(3)  The  object  is  often  omitted  when  it  is  a reflexive  (184,  5)  or  can  be  easily 
supplied : moveo  =-  moveo  me,  I move  (myself) ; vertit  ==  vertit  se,  he  moves  (him- 
self). 

(4)  Some  verbs  are  sometimes  transitive  and  sometimes  intransitive:  augeo., 
diiro^  incipio.,  laxo.,  ruo,  suppedito.,  turbo,  etc. 

2.  With  or  Without  other  Cases. — The  direct  object  may 
be  used  with  all  transitive  verbs,  whether  with  or  without  other 
cases.  See  384.  410.  419. 

3.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs. — Many  verbs  transi- 
tive in  English  are  intransitive  in  Latin.  See  385.  Conversely 
some  verbs  intransitive  in  English  are  transitive  in  Latin,  or  at 
least  are  often  so  used,  especially  verbs  denoting 

1)  Feeling  or  Mental  State : despero,  to  despair  of ; dblco,  to  grieve  for ; 
gemo,  to  sigh  over;  horreo, to  shudder  at;  Idcrimo,  to  weep  over;  moereo, 
to  mourn  over;  miror,  to  wonder  at ; rideo,  to  laugh  at ; to  thirst  for, 

etc.  , V _ /777 

Honores  desperat.  He  despairs  of  honors.  Cic.  Ilaec  gemebant.  They 
were  sighing  over  these  things.  Cic.  Detrimenta  ridet.  He  laughs  at  losses.  Hor. 

2)  Taste  or  Smell:  dleo,  sdpio,  and  their  compounds,  both  literally  and 
figuratively : 


Bir.ECT  OBJECT.  TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 


165 


Olet  unguenta,  He  smells  of  p erf  umes.  Ter.  Oratio  redolet  antiquitatem, 
T^ic  oration  smacks  of  antiquity,  Cic. 

4.  Compounds  of  Peepositions. — We  notice  two  classes: 

1)  Many  compounds  become  transitive  by  the  force  of  the  prepositions 
with  which  they  are  compounded,  especially  compounds  of  circum^  per^  prae- 
ter y trans y super y and  subter : 

Murmur  concionem  pervasit,  A murmur  went  through  the  assembly.  Liv. 
Rhenum  transierunt,  They  crossed  (went  across)  the  Rhine.  €aes. 

2)  Many  compounds,  without  becoming  strictly  transitive,  admit  an 
Accus.  dependent  upon  the  preposition  : 

Circumstant  senatum,  They  stand  around  the  senate.  Cic. 

5.  Clause  as  Object. — An  Infinitive  or  a Clause  may  be  used 
as  Direct  Object: 

Imperare  ciipiunt,  They  desire  to  rule.  Just.  Sentimus  ca.ere  ignem. 
We  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic. 

6.  Passive  Consteuction, — Wben  a verb  takes  the  passive 
construction 

1)  The  direct  object  of  the  active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  passive,  and 

2)  The  subject  of  the  active  becomes  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (414)  or  the 
Ablative  of  Agent  with  a or  ab  (414.  5),. 

Thebani  Lysandrum  occiderunt.  The  Thebans  slew  Lysander.  Passive: 
Lysander  occisus  est  aTliebanis,  Lysander  was  slain  by  the  Thebans.  Nep. 

7.  Accusative  in  Special  Instances. — Participles  in  duSy  ver- 
bal adjectives  in  hundm.,  and  in  Plautus  a few  verbal  nouns,  occur 
with  the  accusative : 

Vitabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibi  hanc  curatio  est 
rem.  What  care  have  you  of  this  f Plant. 

372.  Two  Accusatives.— Two  accusatives  without  any 
connective,  expressed  or  understood,  may  depend  upon  the 
same  verb.  They  may  denote 

1.  The  same  person  or  thing. 

2.  Dififerent  persons  or  things. 

Any  number  of  accusatives  connected  by  conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood, 
may  of  course  depend  upon  the  same  verb. 

EULE  VI.— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

373.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  eegaed- 
iNG,  SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of 
the  same  person  or  thing  : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecSrunt,  They  made  Hamilcar  commander* 
Nep.  Ancum  rSgem  populus  creavit,  The  people  elected  Ancus  king. 
Liv.  Summum  consilium  appellarunt  Senatum,  They  called  their  highest 
cmmcil  Senate.  Cic.  Se  praestitit  propugnatorem  libertatis,  He  showed 


166 


TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 


himself  the  champion  of  liberty,  Cic.  Flaccum  habuit  ccllSgam,  He  had 
Flaccus  as  colleague,  Nep. 

1.  Predicate  Accusative. — One  of  the  two  accusatives  is  the  Direct  Ob- 
jecty  and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.  The  latter  may  6e 
called  a Predicate  Accusative,  See  362.  2.  (2). 

2.  Verbs  with  Predicate  Accusative. — The  verbs  which  most  frequent- 
ly admit  a Direct  Object  with  a Predicate  Accusative  are  verbs  of 

1)  Making^  electing  : facio,  efficio,  reddo,— creo,  elTgo,  designo,  declaro. 

2)  Calling^  regarding : appello,  nomino,  voco,  dico, — arbitror,  existimo,  duco, 
judico,  habeo,  puto. 

3)  Showing : praesto,  praebeo,  exhibeo. 

3.  Adjective  as  Predicate  Accusative.— The  Predicate  Accusative  may 
be  either  Substantive  or  Adjective  : 

Homines  caecos  reddit  avaritia,  Avarice  renders  men  olind.  Cic. 

4.  Passive  Construction. — In  the  Passive  these  verbs  take  two  Nomina- 
tives, a Subject  and  Predicate^  corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the 
Active : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  See  362.  2.  2.) 

EXILE  VII.— Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Thing. 
874.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching, 
and  CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives  in  the  Active, 
and  one  in  the  Passive : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  He  ashed  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Ego  senten- 
tiam rogatus  sum,  I was  asked  my  opinion.  Cic.  Philosophia  nos  res  om- 
nes docuit,  Philosophy  has  taught  us  all  things.  Cic.  Artes  edoctus  fue- 
rat, He  had  been  taught  the  arts.  Liv.  Non  te  celavi  sermonem,  I did  not 
conceal  from  you  the  conversation.  Cic. 

1.  Peeson  and  Thing. — One  accusative  generally  designates 
the  person^  the  other  the  thing : with  the  Passive  the  accusative 
of  the  Person  becomes  the  subject  and  the  accusative  of  the  thing 
is  retained : see  examples. 

2.  Yeebs  with  two  Accusatives. — Those  most  frequently  so 
used  are 

1)  Regularly : celo — doceo,  edoceo,  dedoceo. 

2)  Sometimes:  oro,  exoro,  r5go,  interrbgo,  percontor,  flagito, 
posco,  reposco. 

8.  Othee  Oonsteuctions  also  occur : 

1)  Celo : Ablative  with  a preposition : 

Me  de  boc  libro  celavit,  Ile  kept  me  ignorant  of  this  hook.  Cic.  Passive : Acens, 
of  Neuter  pronoun  or  Abi.  with  de : Hoc  celari,  to  he  kept  ignorant  of  this.  Ter. 
Celari  de  consilio,  to  he  kept  ignorant  of  the  plan.  Cic.  The  Dative  is  rare:  Id 
Alcibiadi  celari  non  potuit.  This  could  not  he  concealed  from  Alcibiades.  Nep. 

2)  Verbs  of  Teaching : Ablative  with  or  without  a preposition  : 

De  sua  re  me  docet ; He  informs  me  in  regard  to  his  case.  Cic.  SScr^tem  fidi- 
bus dbcuit,  He  taught  Socrates  (w'ith)  the  lyre.  Cic. 


TWO  ACCUSATIVES. 


167 


^ S)  Verbs  of  Asking^  Demanding ; Ablative  with  a preposition : 

Hoc  a me  poscSre,  to  demand  this  from  me.  Cic.  Te  iisdem  de  rebus  iaterr6go, 
i ask  you  in  regard  to  the  same  things.  Cic. 

4)  postulo^  and  quaero  take  the  Ablative  of  the  person  with  a 

V preposition : 

Pacem  a Pwomanis  petierunt,  They  asked  peace  from  the  Romans.  Caes. 

i 4.  Infinitive  or  Clause  as  Accusative  of  thing : 

\ Te  sapere  docet,  De  teaches  you  to  he  wise.  Cic. 

5.  A Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  a second  accusative 
occurs  with  many  verbs  which  do  not  otherwise  take  two  accusa-* 

y txyes: 

^ Hoc  te  hortor,  1 exhort  you  to  this,  1 give  you  this  exhortation.  Cic.  Ea 

V monemur,  iVe  are  admonished  of  these  things.  Cic. 

6.  Compound  Verbs. — A few  compounds  of  tram.,  circum,  ad, 
^ and  in  admit  two  accusatives,  dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb, 

the  other  upon  the  preposition : 
y Iberum  copias  trajecit,  He  led  his  forces  across  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

In  the  Passive,  not  only  these,  but  even  other  compounds  sometimes  admit  an 
^ Accus.  depending  upon  the  preposition : 

y Praetervehor  ostia  Pantagiae,  I am  carried  by  the  mouth  of  the  Pantagia. 

Virg. 

7.  Poetic  Accusative. — In  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of 
clothing,  unclothing — induo,  exuo,  cingo,  accingo,  induco,  etc. — 
sometimes  take  in  the  Passive  an  accusative  in  imitation  of  the 

A Greek: 

s Galeam  induitur,  He  puts  on  his  helmet.  Virg.  Inutile  ferrum  cingitur, 

^ He  girds  on  his  useless  sword.  Virg.  Virgines  longam  indutae  vestem, 
j maidens  attired  in  long  robes.  Liv. 

II.  Accusative  as  Subject  oe  Infinitive, 

375.  The  Accusative  is  used  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infin- 
itive ; see  545 : 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  They  say  that  Plato  came  into 
Holy.  Cic. 

Platonem  is  the  subject  of  venisse. 

III.  Accusative  in  agreement  with  an  Accusative. 

376.  The  Accusative  in  agreement  with  another  Accu- 
sative is  either  a Predicate  Noun  or  an  Appositive : 

Orestem  se  esse  dixit.  He  said  that  he  was  Orestes.  Cic.  Apud  Hero- 
's dotum,  patrem  historiae,  in  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  See 
862  and  803. 


i6S 


ADVERBIAI.  ACCUSATIVE, 


IV.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sensi: 

377.  In  an  Adverbial  sense  the  Accusative  is  used 
either  with  or  without  Prepositions, 

1.  With  Prepositions.  See  483. 

2.  Without  Prepositions.— Tho  Adverbial  use  of  the  Accusative  without 
Prepositions  is  presented  in  the  following  rules. 

EULS  VIII.— Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

378.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are 
expressed  by  the  Accusative  : 

Romulus  septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Romulus  reigned  thirty- 
seven  years,  Liv.  Quinque  millia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  Jive  miles. 
Cic.  Pedes  octoginta  distare,  to  he  eighty  feet  distant.  Caes.  Nix  quat- 
tuor pSdes  alta,  snow  four  feet  deep.  Liv.  But 

1.  Duration  of  Time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative 
or  the  Accusative  with  a Preposition  : 

1)  By  the  Ablative : Pugnatum  est  horis  quinque,  The  battle  was 
fought  five  hoxirs.  Caes. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  Preposition : Per  annos  viginti  certatum 
est,  The  war  was  waged  for  twenty  years.  Liv. 

2.  Distance  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative : 

Millibus  passuum  sex  consedit,  He  encamped  at  the  distance  of  six  miles. 
Caes.  Sometimes  with  a preposition ; Ab  millibus  passuum  duobus,  at  th^ 
distance  of  two  miles.  Caes. 

RULE  IX.— Accusative  cf  Limit. 

379.  The  Name  of  a Town  used  as  the  Limit  of 
motion  is  put  in  the  Accusative : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit.  The  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv.  Plato 
Tarentum  venit,  Plato  carne  to  Tarentum.  Cic.  Fugit  Tarquinios,  He  fed 
to  Tarquinii.  Cic.  But 

1.  The  Accusative  with  Ad  occurs : 

1)  In  the  sense  of — to^  toward^  in  the  direction  of,  into  the  vicinity  of  : 

Tres  sunt  viae  ad  Mutinam,  There  are  three  roads  to  Mutina.  Cic.  Ad 

Z^mam  pervenit,  He  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Zama.  Sail. 

2)  In  contrast  with  a or  ab  : 

A Dianio  ad  Sinopen, /rcw  Dianium  to  Sinope.  Cic. 

2.  Urbs  or  Oppidum  with  a Preposition : 

Pervenit  in  oppidum  Cirtam,  He  came  into  the  town  of  Cirta.  Sail. 

8.  Like  INames  of  Towns  are  used 


ADVERBIAL  ACCUSATIVE. 


169 


1)  The  Accusatives  domum,  domos,  rus ; 

Scipio  domum  i eductus  est,  8ci]^io  was  conducted  home,  Cic.  Ldmos 
abducti,  led  to  their  homes,  Liv.  Rus  evolare,  to  hasten  into  the  country. 
Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  Islands  and  Peninsulas  : 

Latona  confugit  Delum,  Latona  fled  to  Deloe.  Cic.  Pervenit  Chers8n6- 

sum,  He  went  to  the  Chersonesus.  Nep. 

4.  Names  of  Other  Places  used  as  the  limit  of  motion  are  generally  in  tie 
Accusative  with  a Preposition  : 

lu  Asiani  redit,  He  returns  into  Asia.  Nep. 

But  the  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  before  names  of  countries,  and,  in  the 
poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns : 

Aegyptum  profugit,  He  Jied  to  Egypt.  Cic.  Italiam  venit,  He  came  to  Italy. 
Virg,  Ibimus  Afros,  We  shall  go  to  the  Africans.  Virg.  Lavinia  venit  litora,  Hi 
came  to  the  Larinian  shores.  Virg. 

5.  A Poetic  Dative  for  the  accusative  with  or  without  a preposition 
occurs : 

It  clamor  coelo  (for  ad  coelum).  The  shout  ascends  to  heaven.  Virg. 

ETJLE  X.— Accusative  of  Specification. 

380.  A Verb  or  A(3jective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  define  its  application : 

Capita  velamur,  We  have  our  heads  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  our  heads). 
Virg.  Nube  humeros  amictus,  with  his  shoulders  enveloped  in  a cloud, 
Hor.  Miles  fractus  membra  labore,  the  soldier  with  limbs  shattered  with 
labor  (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Hor.  Aeneas  os  deo  similis,  Aeneas  like 
a god  in  appearance.  Virg. 

1.  In  a strict  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Specification  generally  specifies 
the  part  to  which  the  action  or  quality  particularly  belongs.  In  this  sense, 
it  is  mostly  poetic,  but  occurs  also  in  prose.  See  429. 

2.  In  a freer  sense,  this  Accusative  includes  the  adverbial  use  ai partem, 
vicem,  nihil,  oiid  and  genus  in  id  temporis,  id  aetatis  (at  this  time,  age),  id 
genus,  omne  genus,  quod  genus  {fov  ejus  generis,  etc.),  etc. ; also  oi  secus,  libra 
and  of  many  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  ; hoc,  illud,  id,  quid  (454,  2), 
multum,  summum,  cetera,  reliqua,  etc.  In  this  sense,  it  is  common  in  prose. 

Maximam  partem  lacte  vivunt,  They  live  mostly  (as  to  the  largest  part) 
upon  milk.  Caes.  Nihil  moti  sunt,  They  were  not  at  all  moved.  Liv.^  Locus 
id  temporis  vacuus  erat,  The  place  was  at  this  time  vacant.  Cic.  Aliquid  id 
genus  scribere,  to  write  something  of  this  hind.  Cic.  Quaerit,  quid  possint. 
He  inquires  how  powerful  they  are.  Caes.  Quid  vSuis,  Why  do  you  comef 

V.  Accttsative  in  Exclamations. 

EULE  XI.— Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative  either  with  or  without  an  In- 
terjection may  he  used  in  Exclamations  : 


170 


ACCUSATIVE.  DATIVE. 


Eeu  me  miserum,  Ah  me  unhappy  / Cic.  Me  miserum,  Me  miserable  ! ' 
Cic.  0 fallacem  spem,  O deceptive  hope  I Cic.  Me  caecum.  Blind  that  1 
am  I Cic.  Pro  deorum  fidem,  Li  the  name  of  the  gods  ! Cic.  But 

1.  An  Adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  accusative,  as  in  the  ex- 
amples. 

2.  0,  &heu,  lieu  are  the  Interjections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Accusative, 
though  others  occur. 

8.  Other  Cases  also  occur  in  exclamations : 

^ 1)  The  Vocative— an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended : 

Pro  sancte  Jupiter,  0 holy  Jupiter.  Cic.  Infelix  Dido,  Unhappy  Dido.  Virg. 

2)  The  Nominative— the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a statement: 

En  dextra,  Lo  the  right  hand  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand)  1 Virg.  Ecce 
taae  litterae,  Lo  your  letter  (comes)  I Cic. 

8)  The  Dative— to  designate  the  person  after  he%  vae^  and  sometimes  after  ecce^ 
en^  hem . 

Hei  mihi,  Woe  to  me.  Virg.  Vae  tibi.  Woe  to  you.  Ter.  Ecce  tibi,  Lo  to  you 
(lo  here  is  to  you  = observe).  Cic.  En  tibi,  This  for  you  (lo  I do  this  for  you).  Liv. 
See  889.  2. 

SECTIO^^  Y. 

DAT  I VE. 

382.  The  Dative  is  the  Case  of  the  Indirect  Object, 
and  is  used 

L With  Verbs, 

IL  With  Adjectives. 

III.  With  their  Derivatives — Adverbs  and  Substantives. 

I.  Dative  with  Veebs. 

383.  Indirect  Object. — A verb  is  often  attended  by 
a noun  designating  the  object  indirectly  affected  by  the 
action,  that  to  or  for  which  something  is  or  is  done.  A 
noun  thus  used  is  called  an  Indirect  Object. 

EULE  XII.— Bative  with  Verbs. 

384.  The  Indirect  Object  is  put  in  the  Dative  : 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  Verbs  : 

Tempori  cedit,  He  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Sibi  timugrant,  They  had 
feared  for  themselves.  Caes.  Labori  student,  They  devote  themselves  to 
labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  The  world  obeys  God.’^  Cic.  Caesari 
supplicabo,  I will  supplicate  Caesar f Cic.  Nobis  vita  data  est.  Life  has 


^ Milton,  Par.  Lost,  iv.  73 
^ Is  subject  to  God. 

3 Will  make  6ui)plication  to  Caesar. 


DATIVE  WITH  VERBS. 


171 


been  granted  to  us,  Cic.  Numitori  deditur,  He  is  delivered  to  Numitor. 
Liv. 

II.  With  Teansitiye  Verbs,  in  connection  with  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  TJie  bridge  gave  a passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Leges  civitatibus  suis  scripserunt.  They  prepared  laws  for  their  states.  Cic. 

1.  Double  Construction. — A few  verbs  admit  (1)  the  Dative  of  the  per- 
son and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing : alicui  rem  donare^  to  present  a thing  to  any  one,  or 
aliquem  re  dondre,  to  present  any  one  with  a thing.  For  the  Dat.  of  the  per- 
son, the  Dat.  of  a thing  sometimes  occurs,  especially  if  it  involves  persons  or 
is  in  a measure  personified  : 

Murum  urbi  circumdedit,  He  surrounded  the  city  with  a wall.  Nep. 

This  double  construction  occurs  chiefly  with : aspergo,  circumdo,  circumfun- 
do, dono,  exuo,  impertio,  induo,  inspergo,  intercludo. 

2.  To  and  For  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative  : thus 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction,  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a preposition  (379.  and  379.  4) : 

Veni  ad  urbem,  I came  to  the  city.  Cic.  Delum  venimus,  We  came  to 
Delos.  Cic.  But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets : It  clamor  coelo,  The  shout 
goes  to  heaven. 

2)  For,  in  defence  of,  in  behalf  of , is  expressed  by  the  Abl.  with^ro  ; 
for  the  sake  of,  for  the  purpose  of,  sometimes  by  the  Accus.  with  in. 

Pro  patria  mori,  to  die  for  one's  country.  Hor.  Dimicare  pro  libertate, 
to  fight  for  liberty.  Cic.  Satis  in  usum,  moughfor  use.  Liv. 

3.  Other  English  Equivalents.— Conversely  the  dative  is  often  used 
where  the  English  either  omits  to  or  for,  or  employs  some  other  preposi- 
tion. We  proceed  to  specify  the  cases  in  which  this  difference  of  idiom 
requires  notice. 

385.  The  Dative  of  Advantage  and  Disadvantage  is 
used  with  verbs  signifying  to  henejlt  or  injure.,  please  or 
displease,  command  or  obey,  serve  or  resist  also,  indulge., 
spare,  pardon,  envy,  threateyi,  be  angry,  believe,  persuade, 
and  the  like  ; 

Sibi  prosunt,  They  benefit  themselves.  Cic.  Nocere  alteri,  to  injure  an- 
other. Cic.  Zenoni  placuit,  It  pleased  Zeno.  Cic.  Displicet  Tullo,  It  dis- 
pleases Tullus.  Liv.  Cupiditatibus  imperare,  to  command  desires.  Cic. 
j Deo  parere,  to  obey  God.  Cic.  Regi  servire,  to  serve  the  king.  Cic.  Hos- 
tibus resistSre,  to  resist  the  enemy.  Caes.  Sibi  indulgere,  to  indulge  one's 
self.  Cic.  Yitae  parcere,  to  spare  life,  Nep.  Mihi  ignoscere,  to  pardon 
me,  Cic.  Minitans  patriae,  threatening  his  country.  Liv.  Irasci  amicis, 
I j to  be  angry  with  f riends.  Cic.  Mihi  cr^de.  Believe  me.  Cic.  lis  persua- 
i;  / deie,  to  persuade  them.  Caes. 


172 


DATIVE  WITH  VERBS. 


1.  Other  Cases.— Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative : delecto, 
fuvo,  laedo,  offendo,  etc.  ; fldo  and  confido  generally  the  Ablative  (419) : 

Marium  juvit,  He  helped  Marius.  Nep. 

2.  Special  Verbs.— With  a few  verbs  the  force  of  the  dative  is  found 
only  by  attending  to  the  strict  meaning  of  the  verb:  nuho,  to  marry,  strictly 
to  veil  one’s  self,  as  the  bride  for  the  bridegroom  ; medeor,  to  cure,  to  adminis- 
ter a remedy  to;  satisfacio,  to  satisfy,  to  do  enough  for,  etc. 

8.  Accusative  or  Dative  with  a difference  of  signification : ca^ere  dll- 
quern,  to  ward  off  some  one;  cdvere  dlicui,  to  care  for  some  one;  consulere 
aliquem,  to  consult,  etc.;  dlicui,  to  consult  for;  mHioere,  tlmere  dliquem,  to 
fear,  etc. ; dlicui,  to  fear  for;  prospicere,  procidere  aliquid,  to  foresee;  dlicui, 
to  provide  for;  temperare,  Tnoderdri  dllquid,  to  govern,  direct;  dlicui,  to  re- 
strain, put  a check  upon  ; temperare  (sibi)  ah  dllquo,  to  abstain  from. 

A few  verbs  admit  either  the  Acc.  or  Dat.  without  any  special  difference 
of  meaning ; ddulor,  to  flatter ; comitor,  to  accompany,  etc. 

4.  Dative  rendered  From,  occurs  with  a few  verbs  of  differing,  dissent- 
ing, repelling,  talcing  away  : differo,  discrepo,  disto,  dissentio,  arceo,  etc. , 

Differre  cuivis,  to  differ  from  any  one.  Nep.  Discrepare  istis,  to  differ 
from  those.  Hor.  Sibi  dissentire,  to  dissent  from  himself.  Cic.  See  412, 

5.  Dative  rendered  With,  occurs  with  misceo,  admisceo,  permisceo,  jun- 
go, certo,  decerto,  lucto,  altercor,  and  sometimes/acw  (434.  2) : 

Severitatem  miscSre  comitati,  to  unite  severity  with  affability.  Liv. 

Misceo  and  its  compounds,  as  also  junctus  and  conjunctus,  also  take  the  AbL 
with  or  without  cum. 

386.  Dative  witli  Compounds. — The  dative  is  used  with 
many  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions : 

ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter, 

ob,  post,  prae,  sub,  super: 

Adsum  amicis,  1 am  present  with  my  friends.  Cic.  Omnibus  ante- 
stare,  to  surpass  all.  Cic.  Terris  cohaeret,  It  cleaves  to  the  earth.  Sen. 
Voluptati  inhaerere,  io  he  connected  with  pleasure.  Cic,  Interfuit  pugnae, 
He  participated  in  the  battle.  Nep.  Consiliis  obstare,  to  oppose  plans. 
Nep.  Libertati  opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty.  Liv.  Pdpulo 
praesunt.  They  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Succumbere  doloribus,  to  yield  to 
sorroios.  Cic.  Superfuit  patri,  He  survived  his  father.  Liv. 

1.  Transitive  Verbs  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and  Dative: 

Se  opposuit  hostibus,  He  opposed  himself  to  the  enemy.  Cic. 

2.  Compounds  of  other  Prepositions,  especially  ah,  de,  ex,  pro,  and  circum, 
sometimes  admit  the  Dative ; while  several  of  the  compounds  specified  under  the 
rule  admit  the  Abl.:  assuesco,  consuesco,  insuesco,  acquiesco,  supersedeo  (also  with 
Acc.),  etc. 

Hoc  Caesari  defuit,  This  failed  (was  wanting  to)  Caesar.  Caes. 

3.  Motion  or  Direction. — Compounds  expressing  mere  raoti^'n  ur  direction 
Kenerallj  take  the  Accusative  or  repeat  the  preposition: 


DATIVE  WITH  VERDS. 


ns 


Adire  uras,  to  approach  the  altars.  Cic.  Ad  consules  adire,  to  go  to  the  con- 
S'lHs.  Cic. 

In  some  instances  where  no  motion  is  expressed,  several  of  these  compounds 
admit  some  other  construction  for  the  Dative : 

In  oratore  inest  scientia,  In  the  orator  is  knowledge.  Cic. 

387.  The  Dative  of  Possessor  is  used  with  the  verb  &um : 

Mibi  est  noverca,  I have  (there  is  to  me)  a stepmother.  Yirg.  Fonti 
nomen  Arethusa  est,  The  fountain  has  (there  is  to  the  fountain)  the  name 
Arethusa.  Cic.  But 

1.  The  Dative  ot  the  Name  as  well  as  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  expres- 
sions of  naming:  nbmen  est  nomen  ddiur.,  etc. : 

Scipioni  Africano  cognomen  fuit,  Scipio  had  the  surname  Africanus.  Sail. 
Here  Africano,  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cognomen,  is  put  by  attraction  iu 
apposition  with  Scipioni. 

2.  The  Genitive  of  the  Name  dependent  upon  nomen  occurs:  , 

Nomen  Mercurii  est  mihi,  I have  the  name  of  Mercury.  Plant. 

8.  By  a Greek  Idiom,  vblens,  cUpiens,  or  invitus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
dative  of  possessor : 

Quibus  bellum  volentibus  erat,  They  liked  the  war  (it  was  to  them  wishing). 

Tac. 

388.  Dative  of  Agent.—The  Dative  of  Agent  is  used 
with  the  Participle  in  dus : 

Suum  culque  incommodum  ferendum  est,  Every  one  has  his  own  trouble 
to  bear,  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble.  Cic. 

1.  Dative  with  Compound  Tenses. — The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  some- 
times used  with  the  compound  tenses  of  passive  verbs  ; 

Mihi  consilium  captum  jam  diu  est,  lhavea  plan  long  since  formed.  Cic. 

1)  The  Dative  of  Agent,  with  the  Participle  in  dus,  as  in  the  Periphrastic  Con- 

lugation,  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  to  do;  while  with  the  Componnd 

Tenses  of  passive  verbs,  it  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done.  See 

examples  above.  ..t 

2)  Habeo  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  est  mihi  with  the 

Perfect  Participle  (388,  1) : t ^ 

Bellum  habuit  indictum,  He  had  a war  (already)  declared.  Cic. 

8)  The  Ablative  with  a or  ah  occurs: 

Est  a vobis  consulendum.  Measures  must  he  taken  hy  you.  Cic. 

2.  The  Real  Agent  with  Passive  verbs  is  denoted  by  the  AblaUve  with 
a OTab.  The  Dative,  though  the  regular  construction  with  the  Passive  Peri- 
phrastic conjugation,  does  not  regard  the  person  strictly  as  agent,  but 
rather  as  possessor  or  indirect  object.  Thus,  Suum  cuique  incommodum 
est,  means.  Every  one  has  his  trouble  {cuique  Dative  of  Possessor),  and 
Suum  cuique  incommodum  ferendum  est.  Every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear. 
So  too,  Mihi  consilium  est,  I have  a plan ; Mild  consilium  captum  est,  I have 
a plan  {already)  formed. 

3.  Dative  with  Simple  TENSES.-The  Dative  is  used  with  the  tenses  for 
incomplete  action,  to  designate  the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indi^ 
red  Object,  the  person  bt  whom  and  for  (to)  whom  the  action  is  performed: 


174 


TWO  DATIVES. 


Honesta  bonis  viris  quaeruntur,  HonorahU  things  are  sought  hy  good  men 
i.  e.,  for  themselves.  Cic.  * 

4.  Dative  of  Agent  in  Poets.— In  the  poets  the  Dative  is  often  used 
for  the  Ablative  with  a or  ah,  to  designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action  : 
Non  intelligor  ulli,  I am  not  understood  hy  any  one,  Ovid. 


389.  Ethical  Dative. — Dative  of  the  person  to  whom 
the  thought  is  of  special  interest  is  often  introduced  into 
the  Latin  sentence  when  it  cannot  be  imitated  in  English  : 

vemt  ad  me,  But  lo,  he  comes  to  me,  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihi  in- 
tendat animum,  Let  him,  I pray,  direct  his  attention  to  those  things.  Liv. 
Quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  ? What  is  my  Celsus  doing?  Hor.  But 


1.  The  Ethical  Dative  is  always  a personal  pronoun. 

2.  Ethical  Dative  with  volo  and  interjections  : 


_ 1)  With  Volo:  Quid  vobis  vultis?  What  do  you  wish,  intend,  mean?  Liv. 
Avaritia  quid  sibi  vult,  What  does  avarice  mean,  or  what  object  can  it  have^i  Cic. 

2)  With  Interjections:  hei,  vae  and  some  others:  Hei  mihi,  ah  me  Virsr 
V ae  tibi,  Woe  to  you.  Ter.  See  381.  3.  3). 


EULE  ZIU.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  Eor  which. 

390.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the 
OBJECT  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a few  verbs : 

I.  With  Ioteansitive  and  Passive  Verbs  : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia.  Avarice  is  an  evil  to  men  (lit.  is  to  men 
for  an  evil).  Cic.  Est  mihi  cQrae,  It  is  a care  to  me.  Cic.  Domus  dede- 
cori domino  fit.  The  house  becomes  a disgrace  to  its  owner.  Cic.  Vgnit 
Atticis  auxilio.  He  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Hoc  illi 
tribuebatur  ignaviae.  This  was  imputed  to  him  as  cowardice  (^for  cowardice), 
Cic.  lis  subsidio  missus  est.  He  was  sent  to  them  as  aid.  Nep. 

II.  With  Teansitive  Verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  reliquit.  He  left  five  cohorts  for  the 
d.efence  of  the  camp  (lit.  to  the  camp  for  a defence).  Caes.  Pericles  agros 
suos  dono  rei  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic  as  a 
present  (lit.  for  a present).  Just. 

1.  Verbs  with  Two  Datives  are 

1)  Intransitives  signifying  to  he,  become,  go,  and  the  like;  sum,  flo,  etc. 

2)  Transitives  signifying  to  give,  send,  leave,  impute,  regard,  choose,  and 
the  like:  do,  dbno,  duco,  hdheo,  mitto,  relinquo,  tribuo,  verto,  etc.  These 
take  in  the  Active  two  datives  with  an  accusative,  but  in  the  Passive  two 
datives  only,  as  the  Accusative  of  the  active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  pas- 
«ive.  See  371.  6. 


DATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 


175' 


2.  One  Dative  Omitted. — One  dative  is  often  omitted  or  its  place  supplied  by 
a Predicate  Noun : 

Ea  sunt  usui,  These  things  are  of  use  (for  use).  Caes.  Tu  illi  pater  es,  You  are 
a father  to  him.  Tac. 

3.  With  Audiens  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  the  Dat.  dicto  dependent  upon 
audims  and  a personal  Dat.  dependent  upon  dicto-audiens  treated  as  a verb  of 


obeying  (385)  : 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  I am  listening  to  the  word.,  I obey.  Plant.  Nobis  dicto  aud- 
iens  est.  He  is  obedient  to  us.  Cic.  Sometimes  dicto  obediens  is  used  iu  the  samo 
way ; Magistro  dicto  obediens,  obedient  to  his  mdster.  Plaut. 


II.  Dative  avith  Adjectives. 

EULE  XIV.— Dative. 

391.  "With  Adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  qual- 
ity is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

Patriae  solum  omnibus  carum  est,  The  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  to 
all.  Cic.  Id  aptum  est  tempori,  This  is  adapted  to  the  time.  Cic.  Omni 
aetati  mors  est  communis.  Death  is  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Canis  sim- 
ilis lupo  est,  A.  dog  is  similar  to  a wolf.  Cic.  Naturae  accommodatum, 
adapted  to  nature.  Cic.  Graeciae  utile,  useful  to  Greece.  Nep. 

1.  Adjectives  with  Dative. — The  most  common  are  those  signifying : 

Agreeable,  easy,  friendly,  like,  near,  necessary,  suitable,  subject,  useful, 

together  with  others  of  a similar  or  opposite  meaning,  and  verbals  in  bilis. 

Such  are : accommodatus,  aequalis,  alienus,  amicus  and  inimicus,  aptus,  carus, 
fMisand  difficilis,  fidelis  and  infidelis,  finitimus,  gratus  and  ingratus,  idoneus,  ju- 
cundus and  injucundus,  molestus,  necesstirius,  notus  and  ignotus,  noxius,  par  and 
dispar,  perniciosus,  propinquus,  proprius,  salutaris,  similis  and  dissimilis,  vicinus,  etc. 

2.  Other  Constructions  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1)  Accusative  with  a Preposition : (1)  in,  erga,  adversus  with  adjec- 
tives ^igmijmgfriendly,  hostile,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or  end 
for  which,  with  adjectives  signifying  useful,  suitable,  inclined,  etc. : 

Perindulgens  in  patrem,  very  kind  to  his  father.  Cic.  Multas  ad  res 
pSrtitilis,  very  useful  for  many  things.  Cic.  Ad  comitatem  proclivis,  incline 
ed  to  affability.  Cic.  Pronus  ad  luctum,  inclined  to  mourning.  Cic. 

2)  Accusative  without  a Preposition  with  propior,  proximus j 

Propior  montem,  nearer  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mare,  nearest  to 
to  the  sea.  Caes.  See  433  and  437. 

3)  Ablative  with  or  without  a Preposition  : ^ • w 

Alienum  a vita  mea,  foreign  to  my  life.  Ter.  Hdmine  alienissimum, 

most  foreign  to  man.  Cic.  Ei  cum  Poscio  commUnis,  common  to  him  and 
Roscius  (with  Roscius).  Cic. 

4)  Genitive  : (1)  with  proprius,  cornmUmis,  contrarius  / (2)  with  dmilis. 


176 


DATIVE  WITH  NOUNS  AND  ADVERBS. 


dissimilis^  assimilis^  consimilis^  far  and  dispar^  especially  to  express  likeness 
in  character  ; (3)  with  adjectives  used  substantively,  sometimes  even  in  the 
superlative  j (4)  sometimes  with  affinis^  alienus,  insuetus,  and  a few  others  : 

Populi  Romani  est  propria  libertas,  Liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman 
people,  Cic.  Alexandri  similis,  like  Alexander,  i.  e.,  in  character.  Cic.  Dis- 
par sui,  unlike  itself.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom.  Cic.  Amicissimus  hom- 
inum, the  best  friend  of  the  men,  i.  e.,  the  most  friendly  to  them.  Cic. 

3.  Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets  : 

Idem  facit  occidenti.  He  does  the  same  as  kill,  or  as  he  who  kills.  Hor. 

4.  For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  899.  6. 

III.  Dative  with  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 
E,ULE  XV.—Bative. 

392.  A few  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs  take 
the  Dative  after  the  analogy  of  their  primitives  : 

I.  Yerbal\  Nouns. — Justitia  est  obtemperatio  legibus,  is 

dience  to  laws.  Cic.  Sibi  responsio,  replying  to  himself.  Cic.  Opulento 
homini  servitus  dura  est,  Serving  a rich  man  (servitude  to)  is  hard.  Plaut. 

II.  Adverbs. — Congruenter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with 
nature.  Cic.  Sibi  constanter  dicere,  to  speak  consistently  with  himself.  Cic. 
Proxime  hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

1.  Dative  with  Nouns. — Nouns  construed  with  the  Dative  are  derived  from 
verbs  which  govern  the  Dative.  "With  other  nouns  the  Dative  is  generally  best  ex- 
plained as  dependent  upon  some  verb,  expressed  or  understood: 

Tegimenta  galeis  milites  facere  jubet,  He  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  coverings 
for  their  helmets.  Caes.  Here  galeis  is  probably  the  indirect  object  of  facere  and 
not  dependent  upon  tegimenta.  In  conspectum  venerat  hostibus.  He  had  come  in 
sight  of  the  enemy.  Caes.  Here  hostibus  is  dependent  not  upon  conspectum,  but 
upon  venerat;  the  action,  coming  in  sight,  is  conceived  of  as  done  to  the  enemy. 
See  898.  5. 

2.  Dative  with  Adveees. — A few  adverbs  not  included  in  the  above  rule  occur 
with  the  Dative:  huic  una  ==»  iina  cum  hoe,  with  him. 

SECTION  YI. 

GEIUTIVE. 

393.  The  Genitive  in  its  primary  meaning  denotes 
source  or  cause^  but  in  its  general  use,  it  corresponds  to  the 
English  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  q/*,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  relations. 

1.  But  sometimes,  especially  when  Objective  (396,  II.),  the  Genitive  is 
best  rendered  by  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

BSnbficii  gratia,  gratitude  for  a favor.  Cic.  Laborum  fuga,  escape 
from  labors.  Cic. 


GENITIVE  WITH  NOUNS. 


Ill 


394.  The  Genitive  is  used 

1.  With  Nouns. 

II.  With  Adjectives. 

III.  With  Verbs. 

lY.  With  Adverbs. 

I.  Genitive  with  Nouns. 

RULE  XVI-Genitive. 

395.  Any  Noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the 
.meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  : 

CatOnis  orationes,  Cato's  orations.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  of 
the  enemy.  Liv.  Mors  Hamilcaris,  the  death  of  Hamilcar.  Liv.  Deum 
mfetus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consilii  magni,  a man  of  great  pru- 
dence. Caes.  See  363. 

396.  Varieties  of  Genitive  with  Nouns, — The  principal 
varieties  of  the  Genitive  are  the  following  : 

I.  The  Subjective  Genitive  designates  the  subject  or 
agent  of  the  action,  feeling,  etc.,  including  the  author  and 
f)ossessor : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  bite  of  the  serpeiit.  Cic.  Favor  NumidO-rum,  the 
fear  of  the  Numidians.  Liv.  Xenophontis  libri,  the  hooks  of  Xenophon.  Cic. 
Ffinum  Xeptuni,  the  temple  of  Neptune.  Nep. 

II.  The  Objective  Genitive  designates  the  object  tow- 
ard which  the  action  or  feeling  is  directed : 

Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Memoria  malorum,  the  recollec- 
tion of  sufferings.  Cic.  Deum  metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

III.  The  Partitive  Genitive  designates  the  whole  of 
which  a is  taken  : 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you?  Cic.  Yitae  pars,  a part  of  life.  Cie. 
Omnium  sapientissimus,  the  wisest  of  all  men.  Cic. 

1.  Nostrum  and  Yestrum. — As  partitive  genitives,  nostrum  and  ves- 
trum are  generally  used  instead  of  nostri  and  vestri. 

2.  Use. — The  Partitive  Genitive  is  used 

1)  WithjDars,  nemo^  nihil ; nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight,  etc.: 
mbdius^  legio^  talentum^  and  any  nouns  used  partitively  : 

Equorum  pars,  apart  of  the  horses.  Liv.  Medimnum  tritici,  a bushel  of 
wheat.  Cic.  Pecuniae  talentum,  a Nep.  Quorum  Caius, 

of  whom  Caius.  Cic. 

2)  With  Numerals  used  Substantively  ; 


178 


GENITIVE  WITH  NOUNS. 


Quorum  quattuor, /owr  of  whom.  Liv.  Sapientum  octavus,  the  eighth 
of  the  wise  men.  Hor. 

(1)  But  the  Genitive  should  not  be  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  same 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English  : Vivi  qui  (not  quorum)  dKO 
supersunt,  the  living.,  of  whom  two  survive.  Cic. 

3)  With  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  (1) 
with  Azc,  ille.,  quis.^  qui.,  alter.,  uter,  neuter.,  etc.  ; (2)  with  comparatives  and 
superlatives;  (3)  with  neuters  : hoc,  id,  illud,  quid ; multum,  plus,  pluri- 
mum,  minus,  minimum,  tantum,  quantum,  etc. ; (4)  with  omnes  and  cuncti, 
rarely : 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you?  Cic.  Consiilum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls. 
Liv.  Prior  horum,  the  former  of  these.  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  the 
bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Id  temporis,  that  {of)  time.  Cic.  Multum 
operae,  much  {of)  service.  Cic.  Hominum  cuncti,  all  of  the  men.  Ovid. 
But  omnes  and  cuncti  generally  agree  with  their  nouns  : Omnes  homines, 
all  men.  Cic. 

Pronouns  and  Adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Part.  Gen.  take 
the  gender  of  the  Gen.  unless  they  agree  directly  with  some  other  word ; see  Consu- 
lum alter  above. 

4)  With  a few  Adverbs  used  substantively;  (1)  with  adverbs  of  Quan- 
tity— abunde,  affatim.,  ramis,  parum,  partim,  quoad,  satis,  etc.  ; (2)  with 
adverbs  of  Place — hic,  huc,  nusquam,  ubi,  etc. ; (3)  with  adverbs  of 
Extent,  degree,  etc. — eo,  hue,  quo  ; (4)  with  superlatives  ; 

Armorum  affatim,  abundance  of  arms.  Liv.  Lticis  nimis,  too  much  {of) 
light.  OYidi.  little  {of ) wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiarum, 

a portion  of  the  forces.  Liv.  Quoad  ejus  facere  pStest,  as  far  as  (as  much  of 
it  as)  he  is  able  to  do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world.  Cic. 
Hue  arrogantiae,  to  this  degree  of  insolence.  Tac.  Maxime  omnium,  most 
of  all.  Cic. 

3.  Loci  and  locorum  occur  as  partitive  genitives  in  expressions  of 
time : 

\vi\hrQ,2,VdQ\,in  the  mean  time.  Ter.  Adhuc  locorum,  Plaut. 

4.  For  id  genus  — ejus  generic,  secus,  libra,  etc.,  see  380.  2. 

6.  For  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

ly.  The  Genitive  of  Charactebistic  designates 
character  or  quality,  including  value,  price,  size,  weight, 
age,  etc. 

Vir  maximi  consilii,  a man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  inge- 
nii juvenis,  a youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Vestis  magni  pretii,  a gar- 
ment of  great  value.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years. 
Nep.  Corona  parvi  ponderis,  a crown  of  small  weight.  Liv.  See  402,  HI.  1. 

1.  A noun  designating  character  or  quality  may  be  either  in  the  Gen. 
or  in  the  Abl.  See  428. 


ge:nitiye  with  nouns. 


179 


1)  But  it  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  numeral,  or  pronoun,  unless  it 
t>e  a compound  containing  such  modifier;  as  hujusmodi  = hujus  modi : tridui^  from 
tres  dies  ; Vxdui^  from  duo  (bis)  dies.  With  tridui  and  bidui^  via  or  spatium  is  some- 
times omitted;  Aberant  bidui.  They  were  two  days"  journey  distant,  Cic. 

V.  The  Genitive  op  Specification  has  the  general 
force  of  an  Appositi ve  (363)  : 

Yirtus  continentiae,  of  self-control,  Cic.  Verbum  volupta- 

tis, the  word  (of)  pleasure.  Cic.  Oppidum  Antiochiae,  the  city  of  Antioch, 
Cic.  Tellus  Ausoniae,  the  land  of  Ausonia.  Yirg. 

397.  Peculiarities. — We  notice  the  following: 

1.  The  Goyeenino  Woed  is  often  omitted.  Thus 

Aedes,  templum,  discipulus,  homo,  juvenis,  puer,  etc. ; causa,  gratia, 
and  indeed  any  word  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  {sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv.  Hannibal  anno- 
rum novem  (sc.  puer),  Hannibal  a hoy  nine  years  of  age,  Liv.  Naves  sui 
commodi  (causa)  fecerat,  He  had  built  vessels  for  his  own  advantage.  Caes, 
Conferre  vitam  Trebonii  cum  Dolabellae  (sc.  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of 
Trebonius  with  that  of  Dolabella.  Cic. 

1)  The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
another  Gen.  as  in  the  last  example ; and  then  the  second  Gen.  is  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  case  of  the  governing  word : Natura  hominis  beluis  (for  beluarum  naturae) 
antecedit,  The  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cie. 

2)  In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son,  daughter,  husband,  wife,  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Gen.  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Giseo''s  Hasdrubal,  or  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco.  Liv. 
Hectoris  Andromache,  Hector" s Andromache,  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector. 
Virg. 

2.  Two  Genitives  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun — 
generally  one  Subjective  and  one  Objective : 

Memmii  odium  potentiae,  Memmius"' s hatred  of  power.  Sail. 

3.  Genitive  and  Possessive. — A Genitive  sometimes  accompa- 
nies a Possessive,  especially  the  Gen.  of  ipse,  solus,  unus,  omnis : 

Tua  ipsius  Smlcitia,  your  own  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  sollus  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.  Nomen  meum  absentis,  my  name  while  absent.  Cic. 

Here  ipslus  agrees  with  tui  (of  you)  involved  in  tua;  sollus  and  absentis,  with 
mei  (of  me)  involved  in  meum. 

328.  Other  Constructions — for  the  Genitive  occur. 

1.  Ablative  of  Characteristic.  See  428. 

2.  An  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive ; 

Bellica  gloria  = belli  gloria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic,  Conjux  Hectdrea 
— conjux  Heetdris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Yirg, 

9 


180  GEKITIVE  WITH  NOUNS.  WITH  ADJECTTYES. 

3.  The  Possessive  is  regularly  used  for  the  Subjective  Gen.  of  Per- 
sonal pronouns,  rarely  for  the  Objective: 

Mea  domus,  my  home.  Cic.  Fama  tua.  your  fame,  Cic. 

4.  Case  with  Preposition.— A case  with  a preposition  may  be  used  for 
the  Gen. ; especially,  1)  For  the  Objective  Genitive^  the  Accusative  with 
in,  erga,  adversus  : — 2)  For  the  Fartitive  Genitive^  the  Accusative  with 
iirter,  ante,  apud,  or  the  Ablative  with  es,  de,  in : 

- Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  towards  the  race  of  men.  Cic. 
Erga  VOS  amor,  love  towards  you.  Cic.  Inter  reges  opulentissimus,  the  most, 
ivealthy  of  (among)  hings.  Sen.  Unus  ex  viris,  one  of  the  heroes.  Cic. 

5.  A Dative  depending  on  the  verb  is  sometimes  used,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  depending  on  a noun  : 

Urbi  fundamenta  jacere,  U lay  the  foundations  of  (for)  the  city.  Liv. 
Caesari  ad  pedes  projicere,  to  cast  at  the  feet  of  Caesar  y i.  e.,  before  Caesar 
at  his  feet.  Caes.  See  392.  1. 

1)  The  two  constructions,  the  Gen.  and  the  Case  with  Prep.,  are  sometimes  com- 
bined in  the  same  sentence. 

II.  Genitive  with  Adjectives. 

EULE  XVII -Genitive. 

399.  Many  Adjectives  take  a Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic.  Otii  cupidus,  desirous  of  leis-^ 
ure.  Liv.  Amans  sui  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself . Cic.  Efficiens  volup- 
tatis, productive  of  pleasure.  Cic.  Gloriae  m&mor,  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 

1.  PoECE  OF  THIS  Genitive.— The  genitive  here  retains  its 
usual  force — of  in  respect  and  may  be  used  after  adjectives 
which  admit  this  relation. 

2.  Adjectives  with  the  Genitive. — The  most  common  are 

1)  Verbals  in  ax  and  participles  in  ans  and  ens  used  adjectively  r 
Virtutum  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  T6nax  propositi,  tenacious 

(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Ilor.  Amans  patriae,  loving  (fond  of)  his  counti'y. 
Cic.  Eiigiens  laboris,  shunning  labor.  Caes. 

I 2)  Adjectives  denoting  desire^  hnowled.gey  sHll,  recollection., 
participation.,  mastery .,  fulness,  and  their  conti aries. 

(1)  Desire,  Aversion — dvKdus,  cupidus,  studiosus  ; fastidiosus,  etc. ; 
sometimes  aemulus  and  invidus,  which  also  take  the  Dative  : 

Contentionis  cupidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  stiiaiOsus, 

studious  of  (student  of)  wisdom.  Cic. 

(2)  Knowledge,  Skill,  Recollection  with  their  contraries— y war 


GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 


181 


ignarus^  consultuSy  consciuSy  insciusy  nescius^  certuSy  incertuSy  suspensus  j pro- 
mduSy  prudens y imprudens  ; peritus y imperitus y rudis y insuetus  ; memory  irn- 
memory  etc. : 

Rei  gnarus,  acquainted  with  the  thing.  Cic.  Prudens  rei  militaris,  sUll- 
ed  in  military  science.  Nep.  Peritus  belli,  shilled  in  war.  Nep.  Insuetus 
laboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor.  Cues.  Gloriae  mSmor,  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 
Imm§mor  \iQ\iMiQi\y  forgetf  ul  of  hindness.  Cic. 

(3)  Participation,  Fulness,  Mastery,  with  their  contraries — afflniSy  con- 
sorsy  exsorsy  exp erSy  particeps  ; plenus y fertilis y refertuSy  egenuSy  inopSy  vacuus; 
pbtenSy  impbtenSy  compoSy  impoSy  etc. : 

Affinis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.  Cic.  Rationis  particeps,  endowed  with 
(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  Rationis  expers,  destitute  of  reason.  Cic.  Vita  me- 
tus plena,  a life  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Mei  potens  sum,  / am  master  of  myself. 
LiY.  Virtutis  compos,  capable  of  virtue.  Cic. 

3.  Other  Adjectives  also  occur  with  the  Genitive. 

1)  A lew  of  a signification  kindred  to  the  above : 

Manifestus  rerum  capitalium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Noxius 
conjurationis,  guilty  of  conspiracy.  Tac. 

2)  SimiliSy  assimilisy  consimilis y dissimilis  ; par  and  dispar y especitilly 
to  denote  internal  or  essential  likeness.  See  391.  2.  4). 

3)  Sometimes  dlienuSy  communiSy  propriuSy  puhlicuSy  sacer y vlclnus : 

Alienus  dignitatis,  inconsistent  with  dignity.  Cic.  Vin  proprius,  char^ 

acteristic  of  a man.  Cic. 

4)  In  the  poets  and  late  prose  writers,  especially  Tacitus,  a Genitive  of 
Cause  occurs  with  a few  adjectives,  especially  those  denoting  emotion  ovfeel-^ 
ingy  and  a Gen.  having  the  force  of — iny  in  respect  ofyfory  especially  animi 
and  ingeniiy  with  many  adjectives  : 

Anxius  potentiae,  anxious  for  power.  Tac.  Lassus  militiae,  tired  of  mil- 
itary service.  Hor.  See  Gen.  with  Verbs,  409.  2 and  4.  Aeger  animi,  afflicted 
in  mind.  Liv.  Anxius  animi,  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.  Integer  aevi,  whole 
in  respect  of  agCy  i.  e.,  in  the  bloom  of  youth.  Virg. 

4.  Partitive  Genitive  with  Adjectives.  See  396.  III.  3). 

5.  Other  Constructions  for  the  Genitive  also  occur : 

1)  Dative:  Manus  subitis  avidae,  hands  ready  for  sudden  events.  Tac. 
Insuetus  moribus  Romanis,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  manners.  Liv.  Facind- 
ri  mens  conscia,  a mind  conscious  of  crime.  Cic. 

2)  Accusative  with  Preposition  : InsuStus  ad  pugnam,  unaccustomed 
to  battle.  Liv.  Fertilis  ad  omnia,  productive  for  all  things.  Plin.  Avidus  in 
novas  res,  eager  for  new  things.  Liv. 

3)  Ablative  with  or  without  Preposition  : Prudens  in  jure  civili, 

learned  in  civil  law.  Cic.  Riidis  in  jure  civili,  uninstructed  in  civil  law. 
Cic.  His  de  rebus  conscius,  aware  (f  those  things.  Cic.  Vacuus  de  defenso- 
ribus, o/ Caes.  's^cxxa’&y  free  from  caves.  Cic.  R6- 

fertus  bdnis,  replete  with  blessings.  Cic. 

6.  The  Genitive  and  Dative  occur  with  the  same  adjective: 

SIbi  conscii  culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 


182 


GENITIVE  WITH  VEEBS. 


III.  Genitive  with  Veebs. 

400.  The  Genitive  with  Verbs  includes 
I.  Predicate  Genitive. 

II.  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions. 

Predicate  Genitive, 

EULE  XVIII.— Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A Predicate  IToun  denoting  a different  person 
or  thing  from  its  Subject  is  put  in  the  Genitive  : 

Omnia  hostium  grant,  All  things  belonged  to  the  enemy}  Liv.  Senatus 
Hannibalis  grat,  The  senate  was  Hannibal’s^  i.  e.,  in  his  interest.  Liv.  Judi- 
cis est  verum  sequi,  To  follow  the  truth  is  the  duty  of  a judge}  Cic.  Parvi 
prgtii  est,  It  is  of  small  value,  Cic. 

1.  Predicate  Genitive  and  Predicate  Nominative. — The  Predicate  Gen- 
itive is  distinguished  from  the  Predicate  Nominative  and  Accusative  by  the 
fact  that  it  always  designates  a different  person  or  thing  from  its  subject, 
while  they  always  designate  the  same  person  or  thing  as  their  subjects.  See 
S62. 

2.  Predicate  Genitive  and  Predicate  Adjective. — The  genitive  is 
often  nearly  or  quite  equivalent  to  a predicate  adjective  (353.  1) : hominis  est 
= humanum  est,  it  is  the  mark  of  a man,  is  human  ; stulti  est  = stultum  est, 
it  is  foolish.  The  Gen.  is  the  regular  construction  in  adjectives  of  one  end- 
ing : sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  est),  it  is  the  part  of  a wise  man,  is  wise. 

402.  Varieties  of  Predicate  Genitive. — The  principal  are, 

I.  Subjective  or  Possessive  Genitive — generally  best  rendered  by — 
of  property  of  duty,  business,  mark,  characteristic  of : 

Haec  hostium  grant,  These  things  were  of  (belonged  to)  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Est  impgratoris  superare.  It  is  the  duty  of  a commander  to  conquer.  Caes. 

II.  Partitive  Genitive  : 

Pies  nobilium  fontium,  You  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fourdains. 

Hor. 

III.  Genitive  of  Characteristic — including  value,  price,  size,  weight, 
etc. : 

Summae  facultatis  est.  He  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  Opgra 
magni  fuit.  The  assistance  was  of  great  value.  Nep. 

1.  The  Genitive  of  Price  or  Value  is  generally  an  adjective  belonging  to 
fvetii  understood ; but  sometimes  is  expressed  : 


^ Lit.  were  of  the  enemy  ^ or  were  the  enemy's, 
* Lit.  is  ofapidge. 


GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS. 


183 


Parvi  prStii  est,  It  is  of  little  value,  Cic.  See  396.  IV, 

2.  Price  and  Value  with  verbs  of  'bmjing^  selling^  and  the  like,  are  ex- 
pressed 

1)  Regularly  by  the  Ablative.  See  416. 

2)  Sometimes  by  the  Genitive  of  adjectives,  like  the  Pred.  Gen.  of  price: 

'Vendo  frumentum  pluris,  I sell  grain  at  a higher  f rice,  Cic. 

But  the  Gen.  is  thus  used  only  in  indefinite  and  general  expressions  of  price 
and  vaiue.  A definite  price  or  value  regularly  requires  the  Ablative. 

3)  In  familiar  discourse  sometimes  by  the  genitives,  assisy  flocciy  nihili, 
pili  and  a few  others  : 

Non  flocci  pendere,  not  to  care  a straw  (lock  of  wool)ybr.  Plant. 

3.  B6ni  and  Aeguiy  as  Predicate  Genitives,  occur  in  such  expressions  as 
aegui  hbni fdcere  and  loni  consulere^  to  take  in  good  part. 

403.  Verbs  with  Predicate  Genitive. — The  Predicate 
genitive  occurs  most  frequently  with  sum  and  fdcio^  but 
sometimes  alsp  with  verbs  of  seeming  and  regarding : 

Haec  hostium  §rant,  These  things  were  the  enemfs.  Liv.  Oram  Ro- 
manae ditionis  fecit,  He  brought  the  coast  under  (of ) Roman  rule,  Liv. 

1.  Transitive  Verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active,  an  Accusative  with 
the  Genitive,  as  in  the  second  example. 

2.  With  Verbs  of  Seeming  and  Regarding — videor,  habeo,  duco,  pdto, 
etc. — esse  may  generally  be  supplied : 

Hominis  videtur,  It  seems  to  he  (esse)  the  marie  of  a man,  Cic. 

404.  Other  Constructions  for  the  Genitive  also  occur. 

1.  The  Possessive  is  regularly  used  for  the  Pred.  Gen.  of  personal  pro- 
nouns : 

Est  tuum  (not  iui)  videre,  It  is  your  duty  to  see,  Cic. 

2.  The  Genitive  with  Officium^  MunuSy  Negotium^  Proprium : 

Senatus  officium  est,  It  is  the  duty  of  the  senate,  Cic.  Euit  proprium 

populi.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  people,  Cic. 

The  Predicate  Genitive  could  in  most  instances  be  explained  by  supplying  some 
such  word,  but  it  seems  to  be  more  in  accordance  with  the  idiom  of  the  Latin  to  re- 
gard the  genitive  as  complete  in  itself. 

3.  The  Ablative  of  Characteristic,  See  428. 


IL  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions, 

405.  The  Genitive,  either  alone  or  with  an  Accusative, 
is  used  in  a few  constructions  which  deserve  separate  men- 
tion. 


184 


GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS. 


RULE  XIX.— Genitive  with  Certain  Verbs. 

406.  Tlie  Genitive  is  used 

I.  With  misereor  and  miseresco: 

Miserere  laborum,  Pity  the  labors,  Yirg.  Miserescite  regis,  Pity  th$ 
king,  Yirg. 

II.  With  recordor,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor: 

Meminit  praeteritorum.  He  remembers  the  past,  Cic.  Oblitus  sum  mei, 

I have  forgotten  myself.  Ter.  Elagitiorum  recordari,  to  recollect  base  deeds, 
Cic.  Reminisci  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue,  Oaes. 

III.  Yv^ith  refert  and  interest; 

Illorum  refert.  Ii  concerns  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  It  is  the  in- 
terest of  all,  Cic. 

1.  Explanation. — The  Genitive  may  be  explained  as  dependent  upon  re 
in  r'efert^  and  upon  re  or  causa  to  be  supplied  with  interest.  With  the  other 
verbs  it  accords  with  the  Greek  idiom,  and  with  verbs  of  remembering  and 
forgetting^  it  also  conforms  to  the  analogy  of  the  Gen.  with  the  adjectives 
memor  and  immemor  (399.  2.  2)  ). 

2.  Construction  according  to  sense. — The  expression  Venit  mild  in 
mentem^  It  occurs  to  my  mind,  equivalent  to  reminiscor,  is  sometimes  con- 
strued with  the  Gen. ; 

Yenit  mihi  Platonis  in  mentem,  The  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my 
mind,  or  I recollect  Plato.  Cic.  But  the  Nom.  is  also  admissible  : Non  venit 
in  mentem  pugna.  Does  not  the  battle  come  to  mind  ? Liv. 

407.  Other  Constructions  with  verbs  of  JRememher- 
mg  and  Forgetting  also  occur : 

1.  The  Accusative  : MSminSram  Paulum,  I remembered  Paulus.  Cic. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  for  the  thing  (not  person),  with  recordor,  and, 
if  it  be  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  also  with  other  verbs : 

Triumphos  recordari,  to  recall  triumphs,  Cic.  Ea  reminiscere,  Remember  thos^ 
things.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  De : Recordare  de  cgteris.  Bethink  yourself  of  the 
others.  Cic. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  for  the  person  with  recordor,  and  occurs  also 
with  memhii,  though  that  verb  takes  the  Acc.  of  a contemporary. 

408.  The  Construction  with  Befert  and  Interest  is  as 
follows : 

1.  The  Person  or  Thing  interested  is  denoted 

1)  By  the  Genitive  as  under  the  rule. 


GENITIVE  WITH  VEKBS. 


185 


S)  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  Possessive  : 

Mea  refert,  It  concerns  me.  Ter.  Interest  iiiea,  It  interests  me.  Cic. 

This  possessive  r-eguharly  takes  the  place  of  the  Gen.  of  personal  pronouns,  and 
may  be  explained  as  agreeing  with  re  in  refer%  and  with  re  or  causa  to  be  supplied 
with  interest. 

8)  By  the  Dative^  or  Accusative  with  or  without  Ad ; but  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  refert,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person  : 

Quid  refert  viventi,  What  does  it  concern  one  living  ? Hor.  Ad  me  refert,  It 
concerns  me.  Piaut. 

2.  The  Subject  op  Importance,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a Neuter  Pronoun  : 

Interest  omnium  recte  faccre.  To  do  right  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic.  Vestra  hoo 
interest.  This  interests  you.  Cio- 

3.  The  Degree  of  Interest  is  expressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a Neuter 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a Gen.  of  Value  (402.  1 and  2)  : . 

Vestra  maxime  interest,  It  especially  interests  you.  Cic.  Quid  nostrS  refert. 
What  does  it  concern  us  ? Cic.  Magni  interest  mea.  It  greatly  interests  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Object  or  End  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the  Ac* 
cusative  with  ad,  rarely  by  the  Dative : 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  It  is  important  for  our  honor.  Cic. 

409.  Genitive  WITH  otheeYebbs. — Many  other  verbs 
sometimes  take  the  Genitive  : 

1.  Some  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want,  as  egeo,  indigeo,  like  adjectives  of 
the  same  meaning  (399.  2.  2)  ) : 

Virtus  exercitationis  Indiget,  Tirtue  requires  exercise.  Cic.  Auxilii  egere,  to 
need  aid.  Caes. 

2.  Some  Verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling  like  adjectives  (399.  3.  4)  ) : 

Animi  pendeo,  I am  uncertain  in  mind.  Cic.  Discrucior  animi,  I am  troubled 

in  mind.  Plant. 

3.  A few  Verbs  denoting  Mastery  or  Participation  like  adjectives  {399. 
2.  2)  ),  potior,  adipiscor,  regno  : 

Siciliae  potitus  est,  Ile  'became  master  of  Sicily.  Nep.  Eerum  adeptus  est,  Ile 
obtained  the  power.  Tae.  Eegnavit  populorum,  He  was  king  of  the  people.  Hor. 

4.  A Genitive  of  Separation  or  Cause  occurs  in  the  poets,  with  a few 
XQrbs— abstineo,  decipio,  desino,  desisto  ; miror  : 

AbstinSre  Irarum,  to  abstain  from  anger.  Hor.  Laborum  decipitur,  He  is  be^ 
gulled  of  his  labors.  Hor.  Desine  querelarum,  Cease  from  complaints.  Hor.  De- 
gistere  pugnae,  to  desist  from  the  battle.  Vii^. 

5.  Sdtdgo  and  Satagito  admit  a genitive  dependent  upon  sat  (396.  4)  \ 
and  verbs  of  Promising  admit  the  Gen.  damni  infecti  .* 

Eerum  satagere,  to  be  occupied  with  (have  enough  of)  business.  Ter. 

6.  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives.  See  563  and  563,  5. 


186 


ACCUSATIVE  AND  GENIHYE. 


EUIE  ZX— Accusative  and  Genitive. 

410.  A few  transitive  verbs  take  both  the  Accnsar 
tive  of  the  Person  and  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing  : 

I.  Verbs  of  Reminding^  Admonishing. 

II.  Verbs  of  Accusing^  Convicting^  Acquitting. 

III.  Miseret^  Poenitet^  Pudet^  Taedet^  and  Piget. 

I.  Keminding,  etc. — Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  He  reminds  you  of 
friendship.  Cic.  Milites  necessitatis  monet,  He  reminds  the  soldiers  of  the 
necessity.  Ter. 

II.  Accusing,  etc. — ^Yiros  sceleris  arguis,  You  accuse  men  of  crime. 
Cic.  Levitatis  eum  convincere,  to  convict  him  of  levity.  Cic.  Absolvere 
injuriae  eum,  to  acquit  him  of  injustice.  Cic. 

III.  Miseret,  Poenitet,  etc. — E5rum  nos  misSret,  We  pity  them  (it 
moves  our  pity  of  them).  Cic.  Consilii  me  poenitet,  I repent  of  my  pur- 
pose. Cic.  Me  stultitiae  meae  piidet,  I am  ashamed  of  my  folly.  Cic. 

1.  The  Genitive  of  Thing  designates,  with  verbs  of  reminding.,  etc,, 
that  to  which  the  attention  is  called ; with  verbs  of  accusing.,  etc.,  the 
crime,  charge,  and  with  miseret.,  poenitet^  etc.,  the  object  which  produces 
the  feeling.  See  examples. 

2.  Passive  Construction. — The  personal  verbs  included  under  this 
Rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the  Passive : 

Accusatus  est  proditionis,  He  was  accused  of  treason.  Nep. 

3.  Verbs  of  Reminding,  moneo.,  admbneOy  commoneo,  common  facio, 
sometimes  take,  instead  of  the  Genitive, 

1)  The  Accusative  of  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a sub- 
stantive, thus  admitting  two  accusatives  : 

Illud  me  admones,  You  admonish  me  of  that.  Cic, 

2)  The  Ablative  with  de,  moneo  generally  so : 

De  proelio  vos  admonui,  I have  reminded  you  of  the  battle.  Cic. 

4.  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc., 

1)  The  Genitive  with  nomine  or  crimine  : 

Nomine  conjurationis  damnati  sunt.  They  were  condemned  on  the  charge 
of  conspiracy.  Cic. 

2)  The  Accusative  of  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  : 

Id  me  accusas,  You  accuse  me  of  that.  Plant. 

3)  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a preposition,  generally  de  : 

De  pScuniis  repetundis  damnatus  est.  He  was  convicted  of  extortion.  Cic. 

6.  With  Verbs  of  Condemning,  the  Punishment  may  be  expressed 


GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS  AND  ADVERBS. 


187 


1)  By  the  Genitive  : 

Capitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  deaths  Cic. 

(1)  Yoti  damnari^  to  be  condemned  to  fulfill  a vow  = to  obtain  a wish. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  a preposition,  generally  ad: 

Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  wild  beasts.  Suet. 

3)  By  the  Ablative;  and,  in  the  poets,  sometimes  by  the  Dative: 
Capite  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death,  Cic. 

6.  With  Miseret,  Poenitet,  Pudet,  Taedet,  and  Piget,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clause  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a neuter  pronoun  or  niUl : 

Me  poenitet  vixisse,  I rej^ent  having  lived,  Cic. 

1)  Like  Mls^ret2.v%  sometimes  used  miserescit^  commiserescit  ^miseretur ^com- 
miseretur. Like  Taedet  are  pertaedet.,  pertaesum  est. 

2)  PiXdet  sometimes  takes  the  Gen.  of  the  Person  before  whom  one  is  ashamed: 
Me  tui  pudet,  I am  ashamed  in  your  presence.  Ter.  Pudet  hominum,  Ii  is  a 

shame  in  the  sight  of  men.  Liv. 

8)  Pertaesus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object: 

Pertaesus  ignaviam  suam,  disgusted  with  his  own  inaction.  Suet. 

7.  The  Accusative  and  Genitive  occur  with  other  Verbs. — Thus 

1)  With  some  Verbs  of  Freeing  with  the  accessory  notion  of  acquitting; 
Eum  culpae  liberare,  to  free  him  from  blame,  i.  e.,  to  acquit  him  of 

fault.  Liv.  ^0  purgo,  decipio,  and  the  like. 

2)  With  a few  Verbs  of  Filling,  like  adjectives  and  verbs  of  plenty 
(899.  2.  2)  and  409.  1),  especially  compleo  and  impleo  : 

Multitudinem  religionis  implevit,  Ile  inspired  (filled)  the  multitude  with 
religion,  Liv.  See  419.  2. 

3)  With  a few  transitive  verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling  (409.  2),  rarely: 
Te  angis  animi,  You  male  yourself  anxious  in  mind.  Plant. 


IV.  Genitive  with  Adverbs. 

411.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  a few  Adverbs  : 

1.  With  Partitives,  See  396.  III.  2. 

2.  With  Pridie.  and  Postridie,  perhaps  dependent  upon  die  contained 
in  them,  and  with  Ergo  and  Tenus,  originally  nouns  : 

Pridie  ejus  diei,  on  the  day  before  that  day,  Caes.  Postridie  ejus  diei, 
on  the  day  after  thai  day,  Caes.  Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue.  Cic. 
Lumborum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins,  Cic.  For  tenus  with  the  Abl.,  see  434. 

SE0TIO^7  YII. 

ABLATIVE. 

412.  The  Ablative  in  its  primary  meaning  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  Genitive ; but  in  its  general  use,  it  corresponds 
to  the  English  objective  with— /rom,  by,  in,,  with,  and  ex- 
presses various  adverbial  relations.  It  is  accordingly  used 


188 


ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE,  MARKER,  MEANS. 


witliYerbs  and  Adjectives,  while  the  genitive,  as  the  case  of 
adjective  relations,  is  most  common  with  Nouns.  See  393. 

413.  The  Ablative  is  used  as 

I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means — including 

1.  Ablative  of  Price. 

2.  Ablative  after  Comparatives. 

3.  Ablative  of  Difference. 

4.  Ablative  in  Special  Constructions. 

II.  Ablative  of  Place. 

III.  Ablative  of  Time. 

IV.  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 

Y.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

VI.  Ablative  Absolute. 

VII.  Ablative  with  Prepositions. 

I.  Ablative  of  Cause,  Manner,  Means. 

EULE  XXI.— Cause,  Manner,  Means. 

414.  Cause,  Manner,  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Ars  utilitate  laudatur,  An  art  is  praised  because  of  its  usefidness.  Cic. 
Gloria  dticitur,  He  is  led  by  glory.  Cic.  Duobus  modis  fit,  It  is  done  in  two 
ways.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat.  The  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its 
light.  Cic.  Aeger  erat  vulneribus.  He  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds, 
Nep.  Laetus  sorte  tua,  pleased  with  your  lot.  Hor. 

1.  Application  of  Pule. — This  ablative  is  of  very  frequent 
occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  verbs  and  adjectives. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Cause  designates  that  by  which.,  by  rea- 
son of  which.,  because  of  which.,  in  accordance  with  which  anything 
is  or  is  done. 

1)  This  includes  such  ablatives  as  meo  judicio,  in  accordance  with  my 
opinion;  mea  sententia,  jussu,  impulsu,  monitu,  etc.;  also  the  Abi.  with 
dbleo,  gaudeo,  glorior,  laboro,  etc. 

The  Abl.  with  afficio,  and  with  sto  in  the  sense  of  depend  upon,  abide  by,  is 
best  explained  as  Means.  Afficio  and  the  Abl.  are  tojjether  often  equivalent  to 
another  verb:  honor e afficere  = hbnorare,  to  honor;  admiratione  afficere  = ad- 
mirari, to  admire. 

2)  With  Passive  Intransitive  verbs,  Cau^e  is  regularly  expressed  by 
the  Abl.,  though  a preposition  with  the  Acc.  or  Abl.  sometimes  occurs: 

Amicitia  propter  se  expetitur,  Friendship  is  sought  for  itself.  Cic. 

3)  With  Transitive  verbs  the  Abl.  without  a Prep,  is  rare  ; but  causa, 
gratia  and  ablatives  in  u of  nouns  used  only  in  that  case  jussu,  rbgdbji^ 
mandatu,  etc.,  are  thus  useds  sometimes  also  other  words 


ABLATIVE  OF  CAESE,  MANNEE,  MEANS.  1^9 

In  other  cases,  Cause  in  the  sense  of — on  -account  of , because  of , is  gene- 
rally expressed — (1)  by  a Preposition  with  its  case:  oh,  ‘pro^tev,  de,  ex,pTae, 
etc. ; or  (2)  by  a Perfect  Participle  with  an  Ablative : 

In  oppidum  propter  timorem  sese  recipiunt,  They  hetahe  themselves  into 
idle  city  on  account  of  their  fear,  Caes,  Eegni  cupiditate  inductus  conjura- 
tionem fecit.  Influenced  hy  the  desire  qf  ruling,  he  formed  a conspiracy.  Caes. 

Cupiditate  in  the  2d  example  really  expresses  the  cause  of  the  action  fecit,  but 
by  the  use  of  inductus',  it  becomes  the  Abl.  of  Cause  with  that  participle.  ' 

3.  Ablative  of  Manner.— Tins  ablative  is  regularly  accoiu- 
pauied  by  some  modifier,  or  by  the  Prep,  cum  ; but  a few  ablatives, 
chiefly  those  signifying  maniiCT — more^  ordlne.,  q-^dtidne,, _ Qtc, — oc- 
cur without  such  accompaniment : 

Vi  summa,  with  the  greatest  violence,  Nep.  More  Persarum,  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Persians.  Nep.  Cum  silentio  audire,  to  hear  in  silence,  Liv. 

Per  with  the  Acc.  sometimes  denotes  Manner : per  vim,  violently. 

4.  Ablative  of  Means. — This  includes  the  Instrument  and  all 
other  Means  employed.  See  also  434.  2 ; 414,  2,  1). 

5.  Ablative  of  Agent,— This  designates  the  Person  by  whom 
anything  is  done  as  a voluntary  agent,  and  takes  the  Prep.  A or  fib: 

Occisus  est  a Thebanis,  Ile  ivas  slain  hy  the  Thebans.  Nep. 

1)  The  Abl  without  a Prep,  or  the  Accus.  whth  per  is  sometimes  used, 
especially  when  the  Person  is  regarded  as  the  Means,  rather  than  as  the  Agent, 

Cornua  Niimidis  firmat.  He  strengthens  the  wings  with  Numidians.  Liv. 
Per  Fabricium,  by  means  of  (through  the  agency  of)  Fabricius,  Cic. 

2)  Dative  of  Agent.  See  388. 

6.  Person IFIOATION. — When  anything  is  personified  as  agent, 
the  ablative  with  A or  Al)  may  be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons: 

Vinci  a voluptate,  to  be  conquered  hy  pleasure.  Cic.  A fortuna  datam  oc- 
casionem, an  opportunity  furnished  by  fortune.  Nep. 

7.  Ablative  of  Accompaniment. — This  generally  takes  cum  : 

Yivit  cum  Balbo,  He  lives  with  Balbus.  Cic.  But 

In  describing  military  movements,  the  preposition  is  often  omitted,  especially 
when  the  Abl.  is  qualified  by  an  adjective : 

Ingenti  exercitu  profectus  est,  He  set  out  with  a large  army.  Liv. 

415.  Kindred  Uses  of  the  Ablative.- — Kindred  to 
the  Ablative  of  Cause,  etc.,  are 

I.  The  Ablative  of  Price — that  by  which  the  trade  is 
effected. 

II.  The  Ablative  with  Comparatives — that  by  wbicli  the 
comparison  is  effected. 

III.  The  Ablative  of  Difference — that  by  which  one 
object  differs  from  another. 

IV.  The  Ablative  in  Special  Constructions. 


190 


ABLATIVE  OE  EP.ICE. 


EULE  XXII.— Ablative  of  Price. 

416.  Peice  is  generally  denoted  by  tbe  Ablative : 

Vendidit  auro  patriam,  He  sold  his  country  for  gold.  Virg.  Conduxit 
magno  domum,  He  hired  a house  at  a high  price,  Cic.  Multo  sanguine 
Poenis  victoria  stetit.  The  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  tbe 
Carthaginians  at)  much  Hood.  Liv.  Quinquaginta  talentis  aestimari,  to  he 
valued  at  fifty  talents.  Nep.  Vile  est  viginti  minis,  It  is  cheap  at  tv)enty 
minae.  Plant. 

1.  Th  Ablative  of  Price  is  used 

1)  With  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring,  letting,  ^mOy  vendOy  conducOy 
LocOy  veneOy  etc. 

2)  With  verbs  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear,  stOy  constOy  UceOy  suniy 
etc. 

8)  With  verbs  of  valuing,  aestimOy  etc. 

4)  With  adjectives  of  value,  edruSy  vendliSy  etc. 

2.  Exchanging. — With  verbs  of  exchanging — mutOy  coinmMOy  etc. — the 
thing  received  is  generally  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  ci  selling  : 

V^ceh^MXiwavX^Vity  He  exchanged  ivar  for  peace.  Sail.  But  sometimes 
the  thing  given  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  buying,  or  is  put  in 
the  Abl,  with  cum : Exsilium  patria  mutavit,  He  exchanged  country  for  exile* 
Curt. 

8.  Adverbs  of  Price  are  sometimes  used  : hene  emere^  to  purchase  well, 
i.  e.y  at  a low  price  ; care  aestimare,  to  value  at  a high  price. 

4.  Genitive  of  Price.  See  402.  III. 


EULE  XXIII.— Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

417.  Comparatives  without  qijam  are  followed  by 
the  Ablative : 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  Nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Quid  est  melius  bonitate.  What  is  better  than  goodness  i Cic. 

1.  Comparatives  with  Quam  are  followed  by  tbe  Nomina- 
tive, or  by  the  case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them  : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimatur,  Hibernia  is  considered  small- 
er than  Britannia.  Caes.  Agris  quam  urbi  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the 
country  than  to  the  city.  Liv. 

2.  Ablative,  when  admissible. — The  construction  with  quam 
is  the  full  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an  abbreviation.  This 
abbreviation  is  admissible  only  in  place  of  quam  with  the  Nomina- 
tive or  Accusative,  but  is  not  necessary  even  here  except  for  quam 
with  a Relative : 


ABLATIVE  WITH  COMPAEATIYES.  DIFEEEEKCE.  191 

Scimus  solem  majorem  esse  terra,  We  Icnow  that  the  sun  is  larger  then 
the  earth.  Cic.  Amicitia,  qua  nihil  melius  habemus ; friendship^  than  which 
we  have  nothing  better.  Cic.  See  also  examples  under  the  Rule. 

1)  In  the  first  example  the  Ablative  {terra)  is  admissible  but  not  necessary, 
quam  terram  might  have  been  used;  but  in  the  second  example  the  Ablative  i^qud) 
is  necessary,  the  conjunction  quam  would  be  inadmissible. 

2)  In  the  examples  under  the  rale  the  ablatives  mrtute  and  bonitate  are  both 
equivalent  to  quam  with  the  Nom.  quam  'cirtus  and  quam  bonitas^  which  might 
have  been  used. 

3)  Instead  of  the  Abl.,  a Preposition  with  its  case,  ante,  prae,  praeter,  or  supra  is 
sometimes  used : Ante  alios  immanior,  more  monstrous  than  (before)  the  others.  Yirg. 

8.  Construction  with  Plus,  Minus,  etc. — Plus,  minus,  amplius,  or 
longius,  with  or  without  quam,  is  often  introduced  in  expressions  of  num- 
ber and  quantity,  without  influence  upon  the  construction  j sometimes 
also  major,  minor,  etc. ; 

Tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  He  lived  with  you  more  than  a year.  Cic.  Mi- 
nus duo  millia,  less  than  two  thousand.  Liv. 

So  in  expressions  of  age : nStus  plus  triginta  annos,  having  been  born  more  than 
thirty  years.  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by— major  triginta  annos  natus, 
major  triginta  annis,  major  quam  triginta  annorum,  or  major  triginta  annorum. 

4.  Atque  or  Ac  for  Quam  occurs  chiefly  in  poetry  and  late  prose  : 

Arctius  atque  hedera,  more  closely  than  with  ivy.  Hor. 

5.  Alius  with  the  Ablative  sometimes  occurs.  It  then  involves  a com- 
parison, other  than  : 

Quaerit  alia  his,  He  seelcs  other  things  than  these.  Plaut. 

6.  Peculiarities. — Quam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  ablatives 
--^bj'inibne,  spe,  aequo,  justo,  solito,  etc. — are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses  : 

Minor  caedes  quam  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to 
thj  victory.  Liv.  SSrius  spe  venit.  He  came  later  than  was  hoped  (than  hope). 
Liv.  Plus  aequo,  more  than  is  fair.  Cic. 


RULE  XXIV.— Ablative  of  DiSereace. 

418.  Tlie  Measuee  of  Diffeeence  is  denoted  by 
the  Ablative : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  They  make  the  month  one  day 
longer  (longer  by  one  day).  Cic.  Biduo  me  antecessit,  He  preceded  me  by 
two  days.  Cic.  Sunt  magnitQdIne  paulo  infra  elephantos.  They  are  in  size 
a little  below  the  elephant.  Caes. 

1.  The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  involving  a comparison, 
but  adverbs  often  supply  its  place  : Multum  robustior,  much  more  robust. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Difference  includes  the  Abl.  of  Distance  (878.  2),  and 
the  Abl.  with  ante,  post,  and  abhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (427). 


192 


ABLATIVE  m SPECIAL  COKSTRITCTIOISrS. 

EULE  SXV.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions.  ^ 
419,  The  Ablative  is  used 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  com 
pounds : 

Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  We  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 
Cic.  Magna  est  praeda  potitus,  He  obtained  great  booty.  Nep,  Vescimur 
bestiis,  We  live  upon  animals,  Cic, 

II.  With  fido,  confido,  nitor,  and  innitor: 

Nemo  potest  fortunae  stabilitate  confidere,  No  one  can  trust  (confide 
in)  the  stability  of  fortune.  Cic.  Salus  veritate  nititur.  Safety  rests  upon 
truth.  Cic. 

III.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty  and  Want  : 

Non  egeo  medicina,  Ido  not  need  a remedy.  Cic.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be 
free  from  faidt.  Cic,  Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  meile;  The  villa  abounds 
in  milk^  cheese^  and  honey,  Cic,  Urbs  nuda  praesidio,  a city  destitute  of 
defence,  Cic.  Virtute  praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic. 

IV.  With  dignusj  indignus,  contentus,  and  fretus; 

Digni  sunt  amicitia,  They  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic.  Natura  parvo 
contenta,  nature  content  with  little.  Cic.  Pretus  amicis,  relying  upon  his 
friends.  Liv. 

V.  With  opus  and  usus; 

Auctoritate  tua  nobis  opus  est,  We  7teed  (there  is  to  us  a need  of)  your 
authority.  Cic.  Usus  est  tua  mihi  opera,  I need  your  aid.  Plant. 

1.  Explanation. — This  Ablative  may  in  most  instances  be  readily  ex- 
plained as  the  Ablative  of  Cause  or  Means : thus  utor.^  I use,  serve  myself 
by  means  of ; fruor.,  I enjoy,  delight  myself  with ; vescor ^ I feed  upon, 
feed  myself  with ; fldo^  confido^  I confide  in,  am  confident  because  of,  etc. 

2.  Accusative  and  Ablative. — Dignor  and  transitive  verbs  of  Plenty 
and  Want  take  the  Accusative  with  the  Ablative : 

Me  dignor  honore,  I deem  myself  worthy  of  honor.  Virg.  Armis  naves 
bnerat,  He  loads  the  ships  with  arms.  Sail.  Oculis  se  privat.  He  deprives 
himself  of  his  eyes.  Cic.  See  371.  2. 

1)  Transitive  verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  signify  to  fill,  furnish  with,  depHve  of, 
etc.:  afficio.,  cumiilo.,  compleo.,  impleo,  imhuo.,  instruo.,  onero.,  orno.,  etc. — orlto^ 
privo.,  spolio,  etc.  Dignor  in  the  best  prose  admits  only  the  Abi. 

2)  For  the  Accusative  and  Genitive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  410.  7.  2). 

8.  Dative  and  Ablative. — Opus  est  and  usus  est  admit  the  Dative  of 
the  person  with  the  Ablative  of  the  thing.  Se^  examples. 


AELATIYE  IN  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


193 


1)  The  Ablative  is  sometimes  a Perfect  Participle,  or,  with  ®pus  est^  a 
Noun  and  Participle : 

Consulto  opus  est,  There  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail.  Opus  fuit  Hirtio  con- 
vento, There  was  need  of  meeting  Hirtius.  Cic. 

2)  With  opus  est,  rarely  with  usus  est,  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted 

(1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative  ; 

Dux  nobis  opus  est,  We  need  a leader,  or  a leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity) 
for  us,  Cic.  Temporis  opus  est,  There  is  need  of  time.  Liv.  Opus  est  cibum,  Hiere 
is  need  of  food.  Plant. 

(2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a Clause,  or  a Supine : 

Opus  est  te  valere.  It  is  necessary  that  you  be  '‘cell.  Cic.  Opus  est  ut  lavem.  It 
is  necessary  for  me  to  bathe  (that  I bathe).  Plaut.  Diclu  est  opus,  It  is  necessary 
to  be  told.  Ter. 

4.  Other  Constructions  also  occur.  Thus 

1)  Uior,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor,  originally  transitive,  are  occasionally 
go  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  dus  is  passive  in  sense.  TJior  admits 
two  ablatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing: 

file  utetur  pHtre,  He  will  find  (use)  me  a father.  Ter. 

2)  Fldo,  confido,  and  innitor  admit  the  Dative,  rarely  the  Abl.  with  in. 

Wriuti  to  confide  in  virtue.  Q\c.  See  3S5. 1. 

3)  Dignus  and  indignus  admit  the  Gen.,  fretus  the  Dat,  nltor  and  innitor  the 
Acc.  or  Abl.  with  Prep.,  and  some  verbs  of  Want  the  Abl.  with  Prep. 

Dignus  salutis,  worthy  of  safety.  Plant.  Pei  fretus,  relying  upon  the  thing. 
Liv.  Vucure  ab  opere,  to  be  free  from  work.  Caes. 

4)  Genitive.— the  gemitive  with  potior,  see  409.  8.  For  the  genitive  with 
verbs  and  adjectives  of  Plenty  and  Want,  see  409. 1,  410.  7,  and  399.  2.  2). 


II.  Ablative  of  Place. 

420.  This  Ablative  designates 

I.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  anything  is  or  is  done : 

II.  The  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  anything  proceeds; — in- 
cluding Source  and  Separation. 

EULE  XXVI —Ablative  of  Place. 

421.  I.  The  PLACE  in  which  and  the  place  from 
WHICH  are  generally'  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  a 
Preposition.  But 

II.  Names  of  Towns  omit  the  Preposition,  and  in 
the  Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions  desig- 
nate the  PLACE  IN  WHICH  by  the  Locative,  (45,  2) : 


194 


ABLATIVE  OF  PLACE. 


I.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  wa^  in  Italy,  Nep.  In  nostris  \ 
castris,  in  our  camp.  Caes.  In  Appia  via,  on  the  Appian  way,  Cic.  Ab 
urbe  proficiscitur.  He  departs  from  the  city,  Caes.  Ex  Africa,  from  Afri- 

ca,  Liv. 

II.  Athenis  fuit,  He  was  at  Athens,  Cic.  Babylone  mortuus  est,  He 
died  at  Babylon,  Cic.  Fugit  Corintho,  He  fed  from  Corinth.  Cic.  Ptomae 
fuit.  He  was  at  Rome.  Cic.  See  48,  4. 

422.  Names  of  Places  Towis^s  sometimes  omit 
the  preposition : 

1.  The  Ablative  of  place  in  which,  sometimes  omits  the 
preposition : 

1)  Generally  the  Ablatives — IbcOj  locis ^ parte^  partibus^  dextra^  laeva f 
sinistra^  terra,  mari,  and  other  Ablatives  when  qualified  by  totus  : 

Aliquid  loco  ponere,  to  put  anything  in  its  place.  Cic.  Terra  marique, 
on  land  and  sea.  Liv.  Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.  Nep. 

2)  Sometimes  other  Ablatives,  especially  when  qualified  by  adjectives  : 

Hoc  libro,  in  this  booh.  Cic. 

In  poetry  the  preposition  is  often  omitted  even  when  the  ablative  has  no  modifier: 

Silvis  agrisque,  in  theforests  and  fields.  Ov. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  place  peom  which  sometimes  omits  the 
preposition,  especially  in  poetry : 

Cadere  nubibns,  to  fall  from  the  clouds,  Yirg.  Labi  Squo,  to 
fall  from  a horse,  Ilor. 

423.  Names  of  Towns  differ  in  their  construction 
from  other  names  of  places, 

1.  Generally  in  simply  omitting  the  preposition.  But 

II.  In  the  Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions 

they  designate  the  place  m which  by  the  Locative.  See 
examples  under  the  Rule. 

1.  Preposition  Ketained. — The  preposition  is  sometimes  retained, 
especially  for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Ab  Ardea  R3mam  venerunt,  They  came  from  Ardea  to  Rome.  Liv.  So 
also  when  the  vicinity  rather  than  the  town  itself  is  meant : Discessit  a Brun-  | 
disio.  He  departed  from  Brundisium,  i.  e.,  from  the  port.  Caes.  Apud  Man- 
tineam, near  Mantinea.  Cic.  Ad  Trebiam,  at  or  near  the  Trebia.  Liv. 

2.  Locative. — ^The  original  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which, 
was  blended  with  the  Ablative,  except  in  the  Singular  of  the  Fifst  and 
Second  Declensions,  where  it  still  remains  distinct,  though  with  the  same 
form  as  the  Genitive.  A few  traces  of  it  also  remain  in  the  Singular  of 
the  Third  Declension,  where  it  ends  in  i.  See  62,  IV.  3. 

3.  Other  Constructions  for  the  Genitive  also  occur : 


i 


ABLATIVE  OF  PLACE,  SOUECE,  SEPARATION. 


195 


1)  AUati've  hy  Attraction : • • t • 

In  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Lammum,  Liv. 

2)  Ablative  without  Attraction,  generally  with  a preposition  : 

In  ipsa  Alexandria,  in  Alexandria  itself,  Cic.  Longa  Alba,  at  Aim 
Longa,  Yirg. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  when  the  noun  takes  an  adjective  or  adjective 
pronoun,  but  the  Locative  domi  (424,  2)  admits  b,  possessive  or  alienus : 

D5mi,  suae,  at  his  home.  Cic. 

3)  With  an  Appellative— oi^pidum—Xhoi  name  of  the  town  is  in  the 
Loc  or  AbL,  but  the  appellative  itself  is  in  the  Abb,  generally  with  a Prep. : 

In  oppido  Antiochiae,  in  the  city  of  Antioch.  Cic.  In  oppido  Citio, 
the  town  Citium.  Nep.  Albae,  in  urbe  opportuna,  at  Alba,  a convenient 
city,  Cic. 

424.  Like  Names  oe  Towns  are  used 

1.  Many  names  of  Islands: 

Vixit  Cypri,  He  livedin  Cypi-us.  Nep.  Delo  proficiscitur,  He  proceeds 
from  Delos,  Cic. 

2.  D5mus,  rns,  and  tbe  Locatives  humi,  militiae,  and  belli: 

Ruri  Severe  vitam,  to  spend  life  in  the  country.  Liv.  Domi  militiaeque, 
at  home  and  in  the  field.  Cic.  Domo  profugit,  Defied  from  home.  Cic. 

3.  Tlie  Locative  of  other  nouns  also  occurs : 

1)  By  Attraction  after  names  of  towns  : 

Romae  Niimidiaeque,  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia.  Sail. 

2)  Without  Attraction  in  a few  proper  names,  and  rarely  also  the  Loca- 
tives arenae,  foci,  terrae^  mclniae : 

D6mum  Chersonesi  habuit.  He  had  a house  in  the  Chersonesus,  Nep. 
Truncum  reliquit  arenae,  He  left  the  iody  in  the  sand*  Viig. 

ETILE  XXYII.— Ablative  of  Source  and  Separation. 

425.  Soukce  and  Sepaeation  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative,  generally  witb  a preposition  : 

Source. — Hoc  audivi  de  parente  meo,  I heard  this  from  my  father. 
Cic.  Oriundi  ab  Sabinis,  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  Statua  ex  acre 
facta,  a statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

Separation. — Caedem  a vobis  depello,  I ward  off  slaughter  from,  you, 
Cic.  Hunc  a tuis  aris  arcebis.  You  will  keep  this  one  from  your  altars. 
Cic.  Expulsus  est  patria.  He  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic. 

1.  The  Ablative  of  Source  designates  that  from  which  any- 
thing is  derived,  including  parentage,  material,  etc. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  designates  that  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  used . 


196 


ABLATIVE  OP  SOURCE,  SEPARATION,  TIME. 

1)  With  Intransitive  verbs  signifying,  to  abstain  from,  be  distant  from, 
etc. 

2)  In  connection  with  the  Accusative  after  transitive  verbs  signifying, 
lo  hold  from,  separate  from,  free  from,  and  the  like  : arceo,  abstineo^ deterreo, 
ejicio,  excludo,  exsolvo,  libero,  pello,  prQhibeo,  removeo,  solvo,  etc.  : 

3)  A few  verbs  of  separation  admit  the  Dative:  dliem,  f uror,  etc  See 
385.  4. 

8.  Preposition  Omitted. — This  generally  occurs 

1)  With  Perfect  Participles  denoting  parentage  or  birth— genitus,  natus, 
oi'tus,  etc. : 

son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

2)  With  Verbs  of  Freeing,  except  lilero,  which  is  used  both  with  and 
without  a preposition  : 

Somno  solvi,  to  be  released  from  sleep.  Cic.  But  in  the  sense  of  acquitting 
these  verbs  admit  the  genitive  (410.  7)  : Aliquem  culpae  liberare,  to  free  one 
from  blame,  i.  e.,  acquit  him.  Liv. 

3)  With  Moveo  before  the  ablatives — loco,  sendtu  and  tr^u  : 

Signum  movere  loco,  to  move  the  standard  from  the  place.  Cic. 

4)  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  with  other  words,  especially  in 
poetry. 

III.  Ablative  of  Time. 

EULE  XXVIII-Time. 

426.  The  Time  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative : 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  He  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic.  Yere 
convenere,  They  assembled  in  the  spring.  Liv.  Natali  die  suo,  on  his  birth- 
day. Nep.  HiSme  et  aestate,  in  winter  and  summer.  Cic. 

1.  Designations  of  Time. — Any  word,  so  used  as  to  involve  the  time  of 
an  action  or  event,  may  be  put  in  the  ablative:  bello,  in  the  time  of  war; 
pugna,  in  the  time  of  battle ; ludis,  at  the  time  of  the  games ; mhnoria,  in 
memory,  i.  e.,  in  the  time  of  one’s  recollection. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  In  is  used  to  denote 

1)  The  circumstances  of  the  time,  rather  than  time  itself ; 

In  tali  tempdre,  under  such  circumstances.  Liv. 

2)  The  time  in  or  within  which  anything  is  done  : 

''  In  diebus  proximis  decem,  in  the  next  ten  days.  SalL 

(1)  This  is  used  especially  after  numeral  adverbs  and  in  designating  the  periods 
of  life : his  in  die,  twice  in  the  day;  in  pueritia,  in  boyhood. 

(2)  In  a kindred  sense  occur  also  the  Ahl.  with  de  and  the  Accus.  with  inter  or 

i/ntra : De  media  nocte,  in  the  middle  of  the  night.  Caes.  Inter  annos  quattuorde- 
cim, in  fourteen  years.  Caes. 

(3)  The  Ablative  with  or  without  in  sometimes  denotes  the  time  within  which 
or  after  which:  paucis  diebus,  within  (or  afterj  a few  days. 


ABLATIVE  OF  TIME,  CHA.EACTEIIISTIC. 


197 


427.  Accusative  or  Ablative. — The  time  since  an  ac- 
tion or  event  is  denoted  by  Abhinc  or  Ante  with  the  Ac- 
cusative or  Ablative,  and  the  time  between  two  events, 
by  Ante  or  Post  with  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  : 

Abhinc  annos  trecentos  fuit,  He  lived  (was)  three  hundred  years  dnce.  Cic. 
Abhinc  annis  quattuor,  four  years  since.  Cic.  Homerus  annis  multis  fuit  ante 
Romulum,  Homer  lived  many  years  before  Eomulus.  Cic.  Paucis  ante  diebus, 
a few  days  before.  Cic.  Post  dies  paucos  venit.  He  came  after  a few  days.  Liv. 

1.  Explanation.— (1)  The  Accusative  with  abUnc  is  explained  as  Dura- 
tion of  Time  (378),  with  ante  and  post  as  dependent  upon  those  prepositions. 
(2)  The  Ablative  in  both  cases  is  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  Difference  (418). 

With  the  Ahl.  ante  and  post  are  used  adverbially  unless  an  Accus.  is  expiessed 
after  them.  Paucis  his  (illis)  diebus,  means  in  these  (those) /ew?  days. 

2.  Kumerals  with  Ante  and  Post. — These  may  be  either  cardinal  or 
ordinal.  Thus  : five  years  after  = quinque  annis  post,  or  quinto  anno  post ; 

>r  post  quinque  annos,  or  post  quintum  annum;  or  with  post  between  the 
numeral  and  the  noun,  quinque  post  annis,  etc. 

3.  Quam  with  Ante  and  Po^T.—  Qua7n  may  follow  ante  and  post,  may 
be  united  with  them,  or  may  even  be  used  {ov  postquam  : 

\ Quartum  post  annum  quam  rfedierat,  four  years  after  he  had  returned. 
Nep.  Nono  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto  anno  quam  6rat 
expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

4.  The  Ablative  of  the  Relative  or  Quum  may  be  used  iov  postquam • 

Quatriduo,  quo  occisus  est,/<9wr  days  after  he  was  killed.  Cic. 


IV.  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 
EULE  XXIZ.— Characteristic. 


428.  The  Ablative  wdth  an  adjective  may  be  used 
to  characterize  a person  or  thing : 

Summa  virtute  adolescens,  a youth  of  the  highest  virtue.  ^ Caes.  Cati- 
line, ingenio  malo  fuit,  Catiline  was  a man  of  a had  spirit  Sad. 

1.  Ablative  of  Characteristic  is  used 

1)  With  Substantives  as  in  the  first  example.  ^ ^ 

2)  In  the  Predicate  with  sum,  and  the  other  verbs  which  admit  a Predi- 
cate Genitive  (403)  as  in  the  second  example. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  a Genitive  instead  of  the  ablative  with  an  adjec- 
tive is  sometimes  used : 

Uri  sunt  specie  tauri.  The  urus  is  of  the  appearance  of  a bull.  Caes. 

3.  Genitive  of  Characteristic. — See  396.  IV. 

4.  Genitive  and  Ablative  Distinguished.— The  Genitive  generally  ex- 
presses permanent  and  essential  qualities  j the  Ablative  is  not  limited  to  any 
particular  kind  of  qualities. 


198  ABLATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION.  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE. 


V.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

EULS  XXX.— Specification. 

429.  The  Ablative  may  be  used  with  a word  to  de- 
fine its  application : 

Agesilaus  nomine,  non  potestate  fuit  rex,  Agesilaus  was  king  in  name, 
not  in  power.  Nep.  Claudus  altero  pede,  lame  in  one  foot.  Nep.  Moribus 
similes,  similar  in  character..  Cic. 


1.  Force  op  Ablative. — This  shows  in  lohat  respect  or  particular  any- 
thing is  true ; thus,  king  (in  what  respect  ?)  in  name  : similar  (in  what  re- 
spect ?)  in  character. 

2.  Accusative  of  Specification.  See  880. 


VI.  Ablative  Absolute. 


430.  A noun  and  a participle,  a noun  and  an  adjective, 
or  two  nouns  may  be  grammatically  independent  of  {ab- 
solved  from)  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  yet  may  express 
\ various  adverbial  modifications  of  tb6  predicate.  When 
used  thev  are  said  to  be  in  the  case  Absolute. 


' SO  used  they  are  said  to  be  in  the  case  Absolute. 

EULE  XXXI.— Ablative  Absolute. 


431.  The  Ablative  is  used  as  the  Case  Absolute  : 

Servio  regnante  viguSrunt,  They  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius 
(Servius  reigning).  Cic.  Regibus  exactis,  consules  creati  sunt.  After  the 
banishment  of  the  kings,  consuls  were  appointed.  Liv.  Sereno  coelo,  when 
the  sky  is  clear.  Sen.  Caninio  consule,  in  the  consulship  of  Caninius.  Cic. 

1.  Use. — The  Ablative  Absolute  is  much  more  common  than  the  Eng- 
lish Nominative  Absolute,  and  expresses  a great  variety  of  relations, — time, 
cause,  reason,  means,  condition,  concession,  etc. 

2.  |5ow  Rendered. — This  ablative  is  generally  best  rendered  (1)  by 
a Clause  with — when,  while,  for,  since,  if,  though,  etc.,  (2)  by  a Wowti  with 
a Preposition, — in,  during,  after,  by,  from,  through,  etc.,  or  (3)  by  an  Ac^ 
tive  Participle  with  its  Object : 

Servio  regnante,  while  Servius  reigned^  or  in  the  reign  of  Servius.  Cic- 
Religione  neglecta,  because  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditis  rCbus  omni- 
bus, tamen,  etc.,  Though  all  things  are  lost^  still,  etc.  Cic.  Equitatu  praemis' 
so,  subs6qu6batur.  Having  sent  forward  his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes. 

3.  A Connective  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative  : 

Nisi  munitis  castris,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.  Caes. 


CASES  WITH  PEEPOSITIONS. 


199 


4.  An  Infinitive  or  Clafse  may  be  in  the  Abl.  Absolute  with  a neuter  parti- 
ciple or  adjective: 

Audito  Darium  mdvisse,  pergit,  Hating  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn 
(that  Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt.  Multi,  incerto  quid 
vitarent,  interierunt.  Many.,  uncertain  what  they  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc., 
being  uncertain),  perished.  Liv. 

5.  A PapwTiciple  or  Adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  Abl.  Absolute : 

Multum  certato,  pervicit,  He  conquered  after  a hard  struggle  (it  having  been 

much  contested).  Tac. 

6.  Quisque  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Abl.  Absolute : 

Multis  sibi  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought.,  each  for  himself.  Sail. 

VII.  Ablative  with  Prepositions.  See  432  and  434. 


SECTION  VIII. 

CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

EULE  XXXIL— Cases  v/itli  Prepositions. 

432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used 
with  Prepositions : 

Ad  amicum  scripsi,  / have  wrillen  to  a friend.  Cie.  In  curiam,  into 
the  senate  house.  Liy.  In  Italia,  in  Italy.  Nep.  Pro  castris,  before  the 
camp. 

433.  The  Accusative  is  used  with 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa,  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citra, 
contra,’erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pone,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  versus : 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Cic.  Adversus  deos,  toward  the  gods.  Cic.  Ante 
lucem,  before  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the ^ council. 
Cic.  Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  tUs  side  of 
the  river.  Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  muros, 
within  the  walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  behind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum 
naturam,  according  to  nature.  Cic.  Trans  Alpes,  across  the  Alps.  Cic. 

1.  Like  Prdpe,  the  derivatives  propior  and  proximus  take  the  Accus.  depend- 
ent perhaps  upon  ad  understood.  Exadversus  (urn)  also  occurs  with  the  Accus.  : 

Propior  montem,  nearer  to  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mure,  nearest  to 
the  sea.  Caes.  See  also  437,  and  for  compounds,  371.  4.  and  374.  6.  ^ 

2.  Versus  (um)^^nd  usque  as  adverbs  often  accompany  prepositions,  especially 
ad  and  in : Ad  Alpe^  versus,  towards  the  Alps. 

434.  The  Ablative  is  used  with 

A or  ab  (abs),  absque,  coram,  cum,  de, 

e or  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,  tSnus ' 


200 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


Ab  urbe,  from  the  city.  Caes.  Coram  conventu,  in  the  presence  of  thb 
adsernhly.  Nep.  Q\xm  Awiiocho^  with  Antiochus.  Cic.  from  the  fo^ 

rum.  Cic.  Ex  Asia,  from  Asia.  Nep.  Sine  corde,  without  a heart.  Cic. 

1.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  aby  de,  eXy  or  super^  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition : 

Abire  magistratu,  io  retire  from  office.  Tac.  Pugna  excedunt,  They  retire 
from  the  battle.  Caes. 

Sometimes  the  Prep,  is  repeated,  or  one  of  kindred  meaning  is  used  : 

De  vita  decedere,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  Decedere  ex  Asia,  to  depart  from 
Asia.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  De  is  sometimes  used  with  FdciOy  FlOy 
or  Sumy  as  follows ; 

Quid  hoc  homine  facias,  What  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  ? Cic.  Quid  te  {or 
de  te)  futurum  est,  What  will  become  of  you  f Cic. 

The  Dative  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense  : 

Quid  huic  homini  facias,  What  are  you  to  do  with  (or  to)  this  man  ? Cic. 

8.  Ay  aby  abSy  e,  ex. — A and  e are  used  only  before  consonants,  ab  and  ex  either 
before  vowels  or  consonants.  Abs  is  antiquated,  except  before  te. 

4.  Tenus  follows  its  case  : 

Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

5.  Cum  with  the  Abl.  of  a Pers.  Pronoun  is  appended  to  it : mecumy  UcurPy  etc., 
generally  also  with  a relative : qubcumy  quibuscwn. 

435.  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  is  used  with 

In,  sub,  subter,  super : 

In  Asiam  profugit.  He  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  montem,  toward  the  mountain.  Caes.  Sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Liv.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga,  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a tortoise  or  shed.  Virg.  Super  Numidiam,  beyond 
Numidia,  Sail,  vq  ^c,\nAi^my  I will  write  on  this  subject,  Cic. 

1.  In  and take  the  Accusative  in  answer  to  the  question  whither? 
the  Ablative  in  answer  to  where?  In  Asiam  (whither?),  into  Asia/  In  Italia 
(where?),  in  Italy, 

2.  Subter  and  Super  generally  take  the  Accusative,  but  super  with  the 
force  of — concerning y ofy  on  (of  a subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ; 
see  examples. 

436.  Prepositions  as  Adverbs. — The  prepositions  were  originally 
adverbs,  and  many  of  them  are  sometimes  so  used  in  classical  authors. 

437.  Adverbs  as  Prepositions. — Conversely  several  adverbs  are 
sometimes  used  as  prepositions  with  an  oblique  case,  though  in  most  in- 
stances a preposition  could  readily  be  supplied.  Such  are 

1.  AVith  Accusative:  propiuSy  proxhmCy  prldiCy  postridiCy  usquCy  desiiper : 

Propius  periculum  (ad),  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.  Pridie  Idus  (ante),  the  day 

before  the  Ides.  Cic.  Usque  pedes  (ad),  even  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  With  Ablative  : pdlamy  prbeuly  slmul  (poetic)  : 

Palam  populo,  in  the  presence  of  the  people.  Liv.  Pr5cul  castris,  at  a distance 
from  the  camp.  Tac.  Simul  his,  with  these.  Hor. 

8,  With  Accusative  or  Ablative:  clamyinsuper : 

Clam  patrem,  without  ihr  father'' s knowledge.  Plant  Clam  vbbis,  without  your 


SYITTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


rule  XXXin.— Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Noun  in  genuer, 
iniMBEE,  and  case  : 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  Fortune  is  b)^d.  Cic.  VSrae  amicitiae,  true  friend- 
nhi'ps,  Cic.  Magister  optimus,  the  best  teacher,  Cic. 

1.  This  Riyfe  incudes  Adject|V^s,  Adjective  Pronouns,  and  Participles. 

2.  Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives.— An  adjective  is  called 
attrihutivey  unless  it  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  sum)y  to  form  the 
^predicate;  it  is  then  called  2. predicate-adjective : as  caeca  ect,  above. 

3.  Agreement  Clause,  ^tc.—AA  adjective  may  agree  with  a^y 
word  or  words  used  substantively,  as  a pronouny  clausCy  infinitivCy  etc. : 

Quis  clarior.  Who  is  more  illustrious?  Cic.  Certum  est  liberos  amari, 
It  is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.  See  42,  III. 

An  adjective  agreeing  with  a clause  is  sometimes  plural,  as  in  Greek. 

4.  Neuter  with  Masculine. — Sometimes  the  Predicate  Adjective  is 
neuter,  when  the  subject  is  Masc,  or  Fern, : 

Mors  est  extremum.  Death  is  the  last  (thing).  Cic. 


5.  Neuter  with  Genitive.— A neuter  adjective  with  a genitive  is  often 
used  instead  of  an  adjective  with  its  noun  : 


6.  Construction  according  to  Sense.— Sometimes  the  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple conforms  to  the  real  meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  gran>- 
matioal  gender  or  number  : 


Pars  certare  parati,  a part  (some),  prepared  to  contmd.  Virg.  N5bis 
(for  me,  446,  2),  praesente,  loe  (1)  being  present.  Plant.  Demosthenes  cum 
ceteris  ^rant  expulsi,  Demosthenes  with  the  others  had  been  bamshed,  JNep. 

7.  Agreement  with  Predicate  Noun  or  Appositive.— See  462. 

8.  Agreement  with  one  Noun  for  Another. — When  a noun  governs 
another  in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two 
nouns,  sometimes  agrees  with  the  other; 

Majora  (for  majorum')  initia  r6rum,  the  beginnmus  of  great^^  things^ 
Liv.  Cursus  justi  (^justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  rioer.  Liv. 


202 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


439.  With  two  or  more  Nouns. — An  adjective  or 
participle,  belonging  to  two  or  more  nouns,  may  agree 
with  them  all  conjointly,  or  may  agree  with  one  and  be 
understood  with  the  others : 

Castor  et  Pollux  visi  suut,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen,  Cic.  Teme- 
ritas ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  Rashness  and  ignorance  are  had,  Cic. 

1.  The  Attributive  Adjective  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun: 

Agri  omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas,  Cic. 

2.  Different  Genders. — When  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders, 
they  may  denote 

1)  Persons:  then  the  adjective  or  participle  agreeing  with  them  con- 
jointly is  masculine  : Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt.  Father  and  mother  are 
dead.  Ter. 

2)  Persons  and  Things  : then  the  adjective  generally  takes  the  gender 
of  the  person  : Rex  regiaque  classis  profecti  sunt,  The  king  and  the  royal 
fleet  set  out,  Liv. 

8)  Things  : then  the  adjective  is  generally  neuter  : Honores,  victoriae 
fortuita  sunt,  Honors  and  victories  are  accidental  (things).  Cic. 

3.  Neuter  with  Masculine  or  Feminine. — With  masculine  or  feminine 
nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  is  often  neuter: 

Labor  et  dolor  sunt  finitima,  Labor  and  pain  are  kindred  (things).  Cic. 
Nox  atque  praeda  hostes  remorata  sunt.  Night  and  plunder  detained  the 
enemy.  Sail. 

4.  Two  OR  MORE  Adjectives. — Two  or  more  adjectives  in  the  singular 
may  belong  to  a plural  noun  : 

Prima  et  vicesima  legiones,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions,  Tac. 

So  in  proper  names:  Cnaeus  et  Publius  Scipiones,  Cnaeus  and  Publius  Scipio. 

Cic. 

440.  Use  of  Adjectives. — The  Adjective  in  Latin 
corresponds  in  its  general  use  to  the  Adjective  in  English. 

1.  An  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea  formed  by  a noun  and  an  adjec- 
tive: aes  alienum  grande^  a great  debt.  Here  qualifies  not  aes  alone,  but 

aes  alienum.  In  such  cases  no  connective  is  used  between  the  adjectives. 

But  the  Latin  uses  the  conjunction  after  multi  even  where  the  English  omits 
it:  multae  et  magnae  tempestates^  many  great  emergencies. 

441.  Adjectives  are  often  used  substantively  v 

the  learned ; muUi^  many  persons  ; multa,,  many  things. 

1.  In  the  Plural,  Masculine  Adjectives  often  designate  persons,  and 
Neuter  Adjectives  things:  fortes^  the  brave;  divites,  the  rich;  pauperes, 
the  poor;  multi,  many:  pauci,  few;  omnes,  all;  mei,  my  friends ; utilia, 
useful  things ; mea,  nostra,  my,  our  things;  omnia,  all  things;  haec,  ilia, 
these,  those  things. 

2.  In  the  Singular,  Adjectives  are  occasionally  used  substantively, 
especially  in  the  Neuter  with  an  abstract  sense:  docttis,  a learned  man; 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


203 


xTerum^  a true  thing,  the  truth ; nihil  sinc^i,  nothing  of  sincerity,  nothing 
sincere. 

3.  Noun  Understood. — Many  adjectives  become  substantives,  by  the 
omission  of  their  nouns  : patria  (terra),  native  country ; dextra  (manus), 
right  hand  ; fera  (bestia),  wild  beast ; hiberna  (castra),  winter-quarters. 

4.  With  Res.— Adjectives  with  res  ave  used  with  great  freedom : res 
adversae^  adversity  ; res  secundae,  prosperity  j respublica,  republic. 

5.  From  Proper  Names. — Adjectives  from  proper  names  are  often 
equivalent  to  the  English  objective  with  of:  pugna  Marathonia,  the  battle 
of  Marathon;  Diana  Ephesia,  Diana  of  Ephesus  ; Hercules  Xenophontius, 
the  Hercules  of  Xenophon, 

6.  Designating  a Part. —A  few  adjectives  sometimes  designate  a par- 
ticular part  of  an  object ; primus,  medius,  ultimus,  extremus,  postremus,  inti- 
mus, summus,  infimus.  Imus,  suprenms,  reliquus,  cetera,  etc. : prima  nox, 
the  first  part  of  the  night ; summus  mons,  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain. 

In  Livy  and  late  writers,  the  neuter  of  these  adjectives  with  a genitive  some- 
times occurs : 

Ad  ultimum  inopiae, /or  ad  ultimam  inopiam,  io  extreme  destitution.  Liv. 

442.  Equivalent  to  a Clause. — Adjectives,  like 
nouns  in  apposition,  are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses: 

Nemo  saltat  sobrius.  No  one  dances  when  he  is  sober,  or  when  sober,  Cic. 
Hortensium  vivum  amavi,  I loved  Hortensius,  while  he  was  alive,  Cic. 
Homo  nunquam  sobrius,  a man,  who  is  never  sober,  Cic. 

1.  Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  postremus,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a rela- 
tive clause : 

Primus  morem  solvit,  lie  was  the  first  who  hrohe  the  custom,  Liv. 

With  the  adverb  prlmum,  the  thought  would  be,  he  first  broke  the  custom,  and 
then  did  something  else. 

443.  Instead  of  Adverbs.— Adjectives  arc  sometimes  used 
where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs  : 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  cheerfully  drank  the  poison. 
Sen.  Senatus  frequens  convenit.  The  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers, 
Cic.  Roscius  erat  Romae  frequens,  Boscius  was  frequently  at  Borne,  Cic. 

Adjectives  thus  used  are:  (1)  Those  expressive  of  joij,  knowledge,  and  their  op- 
posites : laetus,  libens,  inmtus,  tristis,  sciens,  insciens,  prudens,  imprudens,  etc. 
(2)  Nullus,  solus,  totus,  unus ; prior,  primus,  propior,  proximus,  etc.  (3)  In  the 
Poets  several  adjectives  of  time  and  place: 

Domesticus  dtior,  I idle  about  home.  IIor.‘  Vespertinus  pete  tectum,  At  even- 
ing seek  your  abode.  Hor.  See  Examples  above ; also  335.  4. 

444.  Comparison. — A comparison  between  two  ob- 
jects Requires  the  comparative  degree ; between  more 
than  two,  the  superlative : 

the  former  of  these  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi^ 

bravest  of  the  Gauls,  Caes. 

10 


204 


ADJECTIVES.  PKONOUI^-S. 


1.  With  the  force  of  Too  or  Very. — The  comparatire  sometimes  has 
the  force  of  too^  unusuallyy  somewhat^  and  the  superlative,  the  force  of 
'’sej'y : doctior,  too  learned,  or  somewhat  learned  ; doctissimus,  very  learned. 

2.  Comparative  after  Quam. — When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  one 
quality  in  a higher  degree  than  another,  both  adjectives  are  put  in  the 
comparative ; but  when  it  is  said  to  possess  one  quality  rather  than  an- 
other, both  are  in  the  positive,  the  former  with  mdgis  ov ggotius: 

Clarior  quam  gratior,  more  illustrious  than  pleasing,  Liv.  Disertus 
piagis  quam  sapiens,  jiuent  rather  than  wise.  Cic, 

In  the  first  case  the  positive  is  sometimes  used  in  one  or  both  members ; and  in 
the  second  case  mdgis  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  occasionally  the  adjective  before 
quam  is  in  the  comparative. 

3.  Strengthening  Words. — Comparatives  and  Superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a Prep,  with  its  case,  ante,  prae,  praeter,  supra  (417.  2.  3), 
unus,  unus  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  far,  by  far ; Comparatives  also  by 
etiam,  even,  still ; multo,  much,  and  Superlatives  by  longe,  multo,  by  far, 
much,  quam,  quantus,  as  possible  : 

Multo  maxima  pars,  hy  far  the  largest  part.  Cic.  Res  una  omnium  difficillima, 
a thing  hy  far  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  copiae,  forces  as  large 
as  possible.  Sail.  Quanta  maxima  vastitas,  the  greatest  possible  devastation.  Liv. 

4.  Comparison  in  Adverbs  has  the  same  force  as  in  adjectives: 

Quam  saepissime,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.  Fortius  quam  felicius,  with 

more  bravery  than  success.  Liv. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PEONOTINS, 

RULE  XXXIV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

445.  A Pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gen- 

DER,  NUMBER,  and  PERSON  : 

Animal  quod  sanguinem  hSbet,  an  animal  which  has  blood.  Cic.  Ego, 
qui  te  confirmo,  I who  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus  ; eas  ex- 
cita, There  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  them.  Cic. 

1.  Application  of  Rule.— This  rule  applies  to  all  Pronouns  when 
used  as  nouns.  Pronouns  used  as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjec- 
tives. See  438. 

The  Antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  t(»  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whose 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent 
otquod,  and  virtutibus  the  antecedent  of  eas. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS. 


205 


2.  Agreement  with  Personal  Pronoun. — When  the  antecedent  is 
a Demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a Personal  pronoun,  the  relative  agrees 
with  the  latter : 

Tu  es  is  qui  me  ornasti,  You  are  the  one  loho  commended  me,  Cic. 

3.  With  two  Antecedents. — When  a relative  or  other  pronoun,  re- 
fers to  two  or  more  antecedents,  it  generally  agrees  with  them  conjointly, 
but  it  sometimes  agrees  with  the  nearest : 

Pueri  miilieresque,  qui,  hoys  and  women^  who,  Caes.  Peccatum  ac 
culpa,  quae,  error  and  faulty  which.  Cic. 

1)  With  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  pronoun  conforms  in  gender  to  the 

rule  for  adjectives  (439.  2 and  3)*,  hence  muUeresque  qui,  above. 

2)  With  antecedents  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  ])erson  to 
the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs.  See  4G3.  1. 

4.  With  Predicate  Noun  or  Appositive. — A pronoun  sometimes 
agrees  with  a Predicate-Noun  or  an  Appositive  instead  of  the  antecedent: 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call 
man.  Cic.  Thebae,  quod  {quae)  caput  est,  Thebes  which  is  the  capital. 
Liv.  Ea  {id)  erat  confessio.  That  (i.  e.,  the  action  referred  to)  was  a con- 
fession. Liv.  Flumen  Rhenus,  qui,  the  river  Rhinc^  which.  Caes. 

In  the  last  example,  qui  agrees  with  the  appositive  Rhenus ; in  the  other  exam- 
ples, the  pronouns  quern,  quod,  and  ea,  are  attracted  to  agree  with  their  predicate 
nouns  hominem,  caput,  and  confessio. 

5.  Construction  according  to  Sense. — Sometimes  the  pronoun  is 
construed  according  to  the  real  meaning  of  the  antecedent,  without  regard 
to  grammatical  form ; and  sometimes  it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to 
which  the  antecedent  belongs  : 

Equitatus,  qui  viderunt,  the  cavalry  vdio  saw.  Caes.  Earum  rerum 
utrumque,  each  of  these  things.  Cic.  Demociitum  omittamus  ; apud  istos  ; 
let  us  omit  Democritus  ; with  such  (i.  e.,  as  he).  Cic. 

6.  Antecedent  Omitted. — The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omit- 
ted when  it  is  indefinite,  is  the  pronoun  is,  or  is  implied  in  a possessive : 

Sunt  qui  censeant.  There  are  some  who  think.  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod 
accepit,  The  earth  returns  what  it  has  received.  Cic.  Vestra,  qui  cum  in- 
tjerritate  vixistis,  hoc  interest,  This  interests  you  who  have  lived  within^ 
Ucjriiy^  Cic.  Here  the  antecedent  is  vos,  implied  in  vestra. 

Y.  Clause  as  Antecedent. — When  the  antecedent  is  a sentence  or 
clause,  the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445.  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular, 
but  the  relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositive  to  such  antecedent : 

Nos,  id  quod  debet,  patria  delectat.  Our  country  delights  us,asit  ought 
(lit.  that  which  it  owes).  Cic. 

8.  Relative  Attracted. — The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
case  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated  ; 

Judice  quo  (for  quern)  nosti,  the  judge  whom  you  know.  Hor.  Dies  in- 


20G 


PERSONAL  AND  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


Btat,  quo  die,  The  day  is  at  handy  on  ivhich  day,  Caes.  Cumae,  quam 
urbem  tenebant,  Cumaty  which  city  they  held.  Liv. 

9.  Antecedent  Attracted. — In  Poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent 
is  sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  ; and  sometimes  incor. 
porated  in  the  relative  clause  in  the  same  case  as  the  relative  : 

Urbem  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  The  city  which  I am  building  is  yours. 
Virg.  Malarum,  quas  amor  curas  habet,  oblivisci  (for  malarum  aurarum 
qua8)y  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  has.  Hor. 


I.  Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns. 

446.  The  Nominative  of  Personal  Pronouns  is  used 
only  for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Significamus,  quid  sentiamus,  ^Ye  show  what  we  think.  Cic.  Ego 
reges  ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I have  banished  kingSy  you  introduce 
tyrants.  Cic. 

1.  With  quidem  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  and  then  the  third  person  is 
supplied  by  7u’c,  «s,  illey  which  are  then  often  redundant : iu  quidem^  you  indeed,  ille 
quidemy  he  indeed.  Quidem  adds  emphasis;  equidem  = ego  quidem. 

2.  The  writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  nos  for  egOy  nos- 
ier for  meuSy  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular. 

8.  For  Nostrum  and  Vestrumy  see  396.  1. 

447.  Possessive  Pronouns,  when  not  emphatic,  are  sel- 
dom expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Manus  lava.  Wash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mihi  mea  vita  cara  est,  My  life  is 
dear  to  me.  Plaut. 

For  Possessive  with  Genitive  in  the  sense  of  own,  see  397.  3. 


Reflexive  rise  of  Pronouns, 

448.  Sui  and  Suus  have  a reflexive  sense  {himself 
etc.)  ; sometimes  also  the  other  Personal  and  Possessive 
pronouns,  together  with  Is^  lUe.^  and  Ipse  : 

Se  diligit,  Ile  loves  himself.  Cic.  Sua  vi  movetur,  He  is  moved  by  his 
own  power.  Cic.  NLq  con^oloVy  I console  myself  . Cic.  Persuadent  Tulingis 
uti  cum  iis  proficiscantur.  They  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  depar't  with  them. 
Caes. 

1.  Inter  noSy  inter  vos,  inter  sCy  have  a reciprocal  force,  each  othery  one  anotheVy 
together ; but  instead  of  inter  se,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  aii  oblique  case : 

Colloquimur  inter  nos.  We  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se.  They  love 
one  another.  Cic.  Homines  hbminibus  utiles  sunt.  Men  are  useful  to  meUy  i.  c.,  to 
each  other.  Cic 


REFLEXIVE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


207 


449.  Sui  and  Situs  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of 
the  clause  in  which  they  stand  : 

Se  diligit,  He  loves  himself,  Cic.  Justitia  propter  sSse  colenda  est, 
Justice  should  he  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulum  suum  dedit, 
He  gave  his  ring.  Nep. 

1.  In  Subordinate  Clauses  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 
subject,  Sui  and  Suus  generally  refer  to  that  subject: 

Sentit  animus  se  vi  sua  moveri.  The  mind  perceives  that  it  is  moved  by 
its  own  power.  Cic.  A me  petivit  ut  secum  essem,  He  asked  (from)  me  to  he 
with  him  (that  I would  be).  Cic.  Pervestigat  quid  sui  cives  cogitent.  He 
tries  to  ascertain  what  his  fellow  citizens  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  Sui  2,\i^Suus  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  /«,  llle.,  etc.,  gen- 
erally refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects,  which  do  not  admit  sui  and  suus. 

Deum  agnoscis  ex  ejus  operibus.  You  recognize  a god  by  (from)  his  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  civitatem  nihil  eos  mutaturos,  He  hinds  the  state  not  to  change  anything 
(that  they  will).  J ust. 

2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the 
flexive  or  the  Demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  present  the  thought  as  that 
of  the  principal  subject,  or  as  his  own.  Thus  in  the  last  example  under  448,  cum  Us 
is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  without  reference  to  the  sentiment  of  the  princi- 
pal subject;  secum.,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  present  the  thought  as  the 
sentiment  of  that  subject. 

3)  Sometimes  the  Reflexive  occurs  where  we  should  expect  the  Demonstrative, 
and  the  Demonstrative  where  we  should  expect  the  Reflexive. 

2.  Suus  = His  own,  etc. — Suus  in  the  sense  of  his  own,  fitting^  etc., 
may  refer  to  subject  or  object : 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tribuit,  Justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his 
own).  Cic. 

3.  Construction  according  to  Sense.— When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is 
not  the  real  agent  of  the  action,  sui  and  suus  refer  to  the  latter  : 

A Caesare  invitor  sibi  ut  sim  legatus,  1 am  invited  by  Caesar  (real 
agent)  to  be  his  lieutenant.  Cic. 

4.  Suus  Substantively.— The  Plural  of  Suus  used  substantively— 7wV, 
their  friends,  possessions,  etc. — is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring 
to  oblique  cases : 

Fuit  hoc  luctuosum  suis.  This  was  aficting  to  his  friends.  Cic.  Here 
$uis  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject : 

Deforme  est  de  se  praedicare.  To  boast  of  onds  self  is  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Reflexives  referring  to  different  Subjects. — Sometimes  a clause 
has  one  reflexive  referring  to  the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring 
to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Respondit  neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendisse.  He  replied 
that  no  one  had  contended  ivith  him  without  (his)  destruction.  Caes. 

Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  respondit  and  sua  to  neminem,  the  subject  of 
the  subordinate  clause. 


208 


PRONOUNS. 


II.  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

450.  Iste^  Ille^  are  often  called  respectively  de- 
monstratives of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Persons,  as 
hie  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker;  iste^  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed,  and  ille^  that  w^hich  is 
remote  from  both,  and  near  only  to  some  third  person. 

Custos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.  Cic.  Muta  istam  men- 
tem, Change  that  purpose  of  yours.  Cic.  Si  illos  negligis,  if  you  disregard 
those.  Cic. 

1.  Hic  AND  Ille  in  Contrasts. — Hie  designates  an  object  conceived 
as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether  in  space  or  time  : 

Non  antiquo  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fuit  eruditus,  He  was  educated, 
not  in  that  ancient,  hut  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic. 

2.  Hic  and  Ille,  former  and  latter.— In  reference  to  two  objects 
previously  mentioned,  (1)  Hic  generally  follows  Ille  and  refers  to  the  lat- 
ter object,  while  Ille  refers  to  the  former  ; but  (2)  Hic  refers  to  the  more 
important  object,  and  Ille  to  the  less  important : 

Ignavia,  labor  : ilia,  hic  ; Indolence,  labor : the  former,  the  latter.  Cels. 
Pax,  victoria : haec  {pax)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est ; Peace.,  vic- 
tory: the  former  is  in  your  power,  the  latter  in  the  power  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

3.  Hic  and  Ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  dis- 
course, and  Iste  sometimes  indicates  contempt : haec  verba,  these  words, 
i.  G.,  the  following  words ; iste,  that  man,  such  a one. 

4.  Ille  is  often  used  of  what  is  well  known,  famous  : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic. 

1)  Hic  with  or  without  homo.,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  ^go.  Alone  it  is  some- 
times equivalent  to  mens  or  noster. 

2)  //ic,  ille,  and  is  are  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  quldem  • Scipio 
non  multum  ille  quidem  dicebat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.  See  446. 1. 

3)  A Demonstrative  or  Relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a Genitive  or  a 
Prep,  with  its  case:  hic  dolor  = dolor  hujus  rei,  grief  on  account  of  this;  haec  cura 
= cura  de  hoc,  care  concerning  this. 

451.  Is  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the 
antecedents  of  relatives: 

Dionysius  aufugit : is  est  in  provincia,  Dionysius  has  f ed : he  is  in 
the  province.  Cic.  Is  qui  satis  habet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  Eadem 
audire  malunt.  They  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.  Liv. 

1.  /s  is  often  omitted,  especially  before  a relative  or  a genitive : 

Flcbat  pater  de  filii  morte,  de  patris  illius,  The  father  wept  over  the  death  of 
the  son,  the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.  See  also  445.  6. 

2.  Is  or  Ipse  with  a Conjunction  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English 
and  that  too,  and  that  indeed : 


DEMONSTRATIVE  AND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS, 


209 


Unam  rem  explicabo  eanaque  maximam,  One  thing  1 will  explain  and  that  too 

a most  important  one.  Cic,  , ^ . 

thus  used  often  refers  to  a clause  or  to  the  general  thought,  and  et  tpse 
often  best  rendered,  too  or  also : Audire  Cratippum,  klque  Athenis,  to  hear  Cratip- 
pus., and  that  too  at  Athens.  Cic. 

3.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered,  also^  yet : 

Nihil  utile,  quod  non  Idem  honestum,  Nothing  useful,  which  is  not  also  honor- 
able. Cic.  Quum  dicat— negat  idem.  Though  he  asserts— he  yet  denies  (the  same 
denies).  Cic. 

4^  Js—qui  = he — who,  such— as,  such — that: 

li  sumus,  qui  esse  debemus,  We  are  such  as  we  ought  to  be.  Cic.  Ea  est  gens 
quae  nesciat.  The  race  is  such  that  it  knows  not.  Liv. 

5.  Idemr—qui  ; idem — ac,  atque.,  quam.,  qudsi^  ut^  cum  with  Abl.  = the  same— 
who,  the  same— as : 

lidem  mores,  qui,  The  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  idem  ac  fuit,  He 
is  the  .same  as  he  was.  Ter. 

6.  Is  Reflexiue.  See  448. 

452.  Ipse  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  self : 

Ipse  Caesar,  Cwsar  himself.  Cic.  Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custodias,  See  that 

you  guard  yourself.  Cic. 

1.  Ipse  with  Subject. — Ipse  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or 
object,  but  with  a preference  for  the  subject : 

Me  ipse  consolor,  I myself  (not  another)  console  myself.  Cic. 

2.  Ipse,  Very.— is  often  best  rendered  by  very  : 

Ipse  ille  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

3.  With  Numerals  Ipse  has  the  force  oi—gusi  so  many.,  just : 

Triginta  dies  ipsi,jiis^  thirty  days.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  of  own.  one's  own : 

Nostra  ipsorum  amicitia.  Our  own  friendship.  Cic.  See  397.  3. 

5.  Ipse  Reflexive^  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  an  emphatic  sui  or  suus: 

Legatos  misit  qui  ipsi  vitam  peterent.  He  sent  messengers  to  ask  life  for  him- 
self. Sail. 

III.  Relative  Pronouns. 

453.  The  relative  is  often  used  where  the  English 
idiom  rec]^uires  a demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun  • some- 
times even  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence  : 

Res  loquitur  ipsa  ; quae  semper  valet ; The  fact  itself  speaks,  and  this 
(which)  ever  has  weight.  Cic.  Qui  proelium  committunt,  They  engage  bat- 
tle. Caes.  Quae  quum  ita  sint,  shice  these  things  are  so.  Cic. 

1.  Relative  with  Demonstrative. — Relatives  and  Demonstratives  are 
often  correlatives  to  each  other  ; hie — qui,  iste — gui,  etc.  These  combina- 
tions generally  retain  the  ordinary  force  of  the  separate  words,  but  see  is 
— quiy  idem — qui,  451.  4 and  5. 

1)  Quictmque  and  Quisquis,  whoever,  whatever,  sometimes  have  the  force  of 
tvery  by  the  ellipsis  of  fieri  potest:  quacunque  ratione,  in  every  way,  i.  e.,  in  what- 
ever way  it  is  possible. 


210 


RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATI VE  PRONOUNS. 


2.  A Demonstrative  may  supply  the  place  of  a Relative  when  other- 
wise two  relative  clauses  would  be  brought  together  : 

Quae  nec  haberemus  nec  his  uteremur,  Which  we  should  neither  havi 
nor  use.  Cic. 

1)  A Relative  Clause  with  is  is  often  equivalent  to  a substantive : ii  qui 
diunt  — auditores,  hearers. 

3.  Two  Relatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Artes  quas  qui  tenent,  arts^  whose  possessors  (which,  who  possess).  Cic, 

4.  A Relative  Clause  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  Fro  with  the  Abl. ; 

Quae  tua  prudentia  est  = qua  es  prudentia  = pro  tua  prudentia  = such 

is  your  prudence^  or  you  are  of  such  prudence^  or  in  accordance  with  your 
prudence,  etc. : Spero,  quae  tua  prudentia  est,  te  valere,  1 hope  you  are 
well,  such  is  your  prudence  (which  is,  etc.). 

5.  Relative  with  Adjective.— Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the 
antecedent,  sometimes  stand  in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the 
relative,  especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numerals  : 

Vasa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  most  heautiful  vessels  which  he  had 
seen  (vessels,  which  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen).  Cic.  De  servis  suis, 
quem  habuit  fidelissimum,  misit.  He  sent  the  most  faithful  of  the  slaves  which 
he  had.  Nep, 

6.  Quod  Expletive,  or  apparently  so,  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence, 
especially  before  ni,  nisi,  etsi,  and  sometimes  before  quia,  quoniam,  ut\nam,  etc. 
In  translating  it  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes  rendered  by  now,  but,  and : 

Quod  si  ceciderint,  «/or  but  if  they  should  fall.  Cic. 

7.  Qui  dicitur,  qui  vocatur,  or  the  corresponding  active  quern  dleunt,  quern 
vbcant,  are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  so  called,  the  so  called,  uhat  they  or  you  call, 
etc. : 

Vestra  qnae  dicitur  vita,  mors  est,  Your  so  called  life  (lit.  your,  which  is 
called  life)  is  death.  Cic.  Lex  ista  quam  vocas  non  est  lex,  That  law  as  you  call  it. 
is  not  a law.  Cic. 


IV.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

454.  The  Interrogative  quis,  is  used  substantively ; 
qici^  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum,  Who  am  Cic.  Quid  fSciet,  Wliat  will  he  do  i Cic. 
Qui  vir  fuit,  What  kind  of  a man  was  he  ? Cic. 

1.  Quis  AND  Qui. — Occasionally  quis  is  used  adjectively  and  qui  substantively: 
Quis  rex  nnquam  fuit,  What  king  was  there  ever  ? Cic.  Qui  sis,  considera, 

Consider  who  you  are.  Cic. 

2.  Quid,  why,  how  is  it  that,  etc.,  is  often  used  adverbially  (380.  2),  or  stands 
apparently  unconaeeted,  by  the  ellipsis  eapropter  or  a verb : Quid  enim,  why  then? 
what  indeed  {est  or  dlcam)  ? Quid  quod,  what  ot  the  fact  that? 

8.  Two  Interrogatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause: 

Quis  quern  fraudavit,  who  defrauded,  and  whom  did  he  defraud  (lit.  who  de- 
frauded whom)  Cic. 

4.  Attraction.— The  interrogative  often  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun.* 

Quam  (for  quid)  dlcam  voluptatem  videtis.  You  see  what  1 call  pleasure.  Cic. 


PRONOUNS. 


11 


V.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

455.  A.liquls^  quis^  qiii^  and  quispiam^  are  all  indeii- 
nite,  some  one^  any  one : 

Est  aliquis,  there  is  some  one.  Liv.  Dixit  quis,  some  one  said.  Cic.  Si 
quis  rex,  if  any  king.  Cic.  Alia  res  quaepiam,  any  other  thing.  Cic. 

1.  Aliquis  is  less  indefinite  than  quis,  qui,  and  quispiam. 

2.  Quis  and  qui  are  used  chiefly  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num.  Quis  is  generally 
used  substantively  and  qui  adjectively.  Aliquis  after  si,  etc.,  is  emphatic. 

456.  Quldam,  a certain  one,  is  less  indefinite  than 
altquis : 

Quldam  rhetor  antiquus,  a certain  ancient  rhetorician.  Cic.  Accurrit 
quldam,  A certain  one  runs  up,  Hor. 

1.  Quldam  with  an  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  state- 
ment : 

Justitia  mirifica  quaedam  videtur,  Justice  seems  somewhat  wonderful.  Cic. 

2.  Quldam  with  quasi  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  ot  a certain,  a 
kind  of,  as  it  were : 

Quasi  alumna  quaedam,  a certain  foster  child  as  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisqiiam  and  nllus  are  used  chiefly  in  negative 
and  conditional  sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences 
implying  a negative  : 

Neque  me  quisquam  agnovit,  Nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  ^ Si 
quisquam,  if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  censes  ullum  animal  esse,  do  you  think 
there  is  any  animal  ? Cic. 

1.  Nemo  is  the  negative  of  quisquam,  and  like  quisquam  is  generally  used  sub- 
stantively, rarely  adjectively : 

Neminem  laesit,  Ile  harmed  no  one.  Cic.  Nemo  poeta,  no  poet.  Cic. 

2.  Nullus  is  the  negative  of  ullus,  and  is  generally  used  adjectively,  but  it  some 
times  supplies  the  Gen.  and  Abl.  of  nemo,  which  generally  wants  those  cases  ; 

Nullum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.  Nullius  aures,  the  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 

8.  Nullus  for  non.— Nullus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non. 

Nullus  venit,  He  did  not  come.  Cic.  Mortui  nulli  sunt.  The  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

458.  Qicwis.,  QidUbet^  any  one  whatever,  and  Quisque^ 
every  one,  each  one,  are  general  indefinites  (191)  : 

Quaelibet  res,  any  thing.  Cic.  Tuorum  quisque  necessariorum,  each 
one  of  your  friends.  Cic. 

1.  Quisque  with  Superlatives  and  Ordinals  is  generally  best  rendered  by  all  or 
by  ever,  always,  with  primus  by  very,  possible : 

Epicureos  doctissimus  quisque  contemnit.  All  the  most  learned  despise  the  Epi- 
cureans, or  the  most  learned  ever  despise,  etc.  Cic.  Primo  quoque  die,  the  earliest 
day  possible,  the  very  first.  Cic. 

2.  Ut  Quisque— xta  with  the  superlative  in  both  clauses  is  often  best  rendered, 
the  more— the  more : 

Ut  quisque  sibi  plurimum  confidit,  ita  maxime  excellit,  The  more  one  confides 
in  himself  the  more  he  excels.  Cic. 


rrvONOUNS.  verbs. 


O 1 o 
■ ^ L ^ 


459.  Alius  and  Alter  are  often  repeated  : alius — alius^ 
one — another ; alii — alii^  some — others  ; alter — alter^  the 
one — the  other ; alteri — alteri^  the  one  party — the  other : 

Alii  gloriae  serviunt,  alii  pecuniae,  Borne  are  slaves  to  glory ^ others  to 
money.  Cic.  Alteri  dimicant,  alteri  timent.  One  party  contends^  the  other 
fears.  Cic. 

1.  Alms  repeated  in  dilForent  cases  often  involves  an  ellipsis : 

Alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt,  They  advanced  the  state.,  one  in  one  way., 
another  in  another.  Liv.  So  also  with  alias  or  dliter : Alrter  alii  vivunt,  Some  live 
in  one  way.,  others  in  another.  Cic. 

2.  After  Alius.,  Aliter^  and  the  like,  atque.,  ac,  and  et  often  mean  than: 

Non  alius  essem  atque  sum,  I would  not  he  other  than  1 am.  Cic. 

3.  Alter  means  the  one.,  the  other  (of  two),  the  second  ; alius,  another.,  other. 
When  alter— alter  refers  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  alter  usually  refers 
to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  either: 

Inimicus,  competitor,  cum  altcro— cum  altcro,  an  enemy.,  a rival.,  with  the  laU 
ter — with  the  former.  Cic. 

4.  Uterque  means  both.,  each  of  two,  and  in  the  Flu.  both.,  each  of  two  parties. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

SYNTAX  OF  VEEBS. 

SECTION  I. 

AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 

EXILE  XXXV.-Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  num- 
ber and  PERSON : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  ty- 
rants. Cic. 

1.  Participles  in  Compound  Tenses  agree  with  the  subject 
according  to  438.  See  also  301.  2 and  3 : 

Thebani  accusati  sunt,  The  Thebans  were  accused.  Cic. 

1)  In  the  Infinitive,  the  Participle  in  um  sometimes  occurs  without  any  reference 
to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject: 

Diffidentia  futurum  quae  imperavisset, /row  doubt  that  those  things  which  he 
had  commanded  would  take  place.  Sah. 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 


213 


2.  Subject  Omitted.  See  367.  2. 

1)  An  Indefinite  Subject  is  often  denoted  by  the  Second  Pers.  Sing.,  or  by  the 
First  or  Third  Plur.;  dlcas.yow.  (any  one)  may  say;  dlcimus.vfd  (people)  say; 
diciinU  they  say. 

3.  Yekb  Omitted. — See  367.  3. 

461 . Constructi  ON  according  to  Sense. — Sometimes 
the  Predicate  is  construed  according  to  the  real  meaning 
of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or 
number.  Thus 

1.  With  Collective  Nouns,  pars,  multitudo,  and  the  like  : 

Multitudo  abeunt,  The  multitude  depart,  Liv.  Pars  per  agros  dilapsi, 

a part  (some)  dispersed  through  the  fields.  Liv. 

1)  Here  multitudo  and  pars,  though  Sing,  and  Fern,  in  form,  are  Plur.  and 
Masc.  in  sense.  See  also  438.  6. 

2)  Conversely  the  Imperative  Singular  may  be  used  in  addressing  a multitude 
individually:  Adde  defectionem  Siciliae,  Add  (to  this,  soldiers,)  the  revolt  of  Sicily. 
Liv. 

3)  Of  two  verbs  with  the  same  collective  noun,  the  former  is  often  Sing.,  and 
the  latter  Plur. : Juventus  ruit  certantque.  The  youth  rush  forth  and  contend.  \ irg. 

2.  With  Millia,  often  masculine  in  sense; 

Caesi  sunt  tria  millia.  Three  thousand  men  were  slain.  Liv. 

3.  With  Quisque,  Uterque,  Alius— Alium,  Alter— Alterum, 

Uterque  educunt,  they  each  lead  out.  Caes.  Alter  alterum  viaemus. 
We  see  each  other.  Cic. 

4.  With  Singular  Subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum: 

Dux  cum  principibus  capiuntur,  The  leader  with  his  chiefs  is  talcen. 

Liv.  See  438.  6. 

5.  With  Partim — Partim  in  the  sense  of  pars— pars  : 

Bonorum  partim  necessaria,  partim  non  necessaria  sunt,  Of  good 
things  some  are  necessary,  others  are  not  7iecessary.  Cic. 

462.  Agreement  with  Appositive  or  Predicate 
Noun. — Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject, 
but  with  an  Appositive  or  Predicate  Noun  : 

Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorum,  concrematum  est,  Volsinii,  a toimi  of 
the  Tuscaiis,  was  humied.  Plin.  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda.  Not 
every  error  should  he  called  folly.  Cic. 

1.  The  Verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  that  is  urhs,  oppidum, 
or  civitas,  in  apposition  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

1)  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a noun  in  a subordinate  clause  after  quam, 
nisi,  etc. : Nihil  aliud  nisi  pax  quaesita  est  (not  quaesitum),  Nothing  hut  peace 
was  sought.  Cic. 

2.  The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun,  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  eni- 
phatic  than  the  subject,  as  in  the  second  example. 


214 


AGEEEMENT  OF  VERBS. 


463.  Agreement  with  Compound  Subject. — With 
two  or  more  subjects  the  verb  agrees — 

I.  With  one  subject  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aiit  mores  spectS,ri  aut  fortuna  solet,  Either  character  or  fortune  is 
loont  to  be  regarded.  Cic.  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Rdmam  condi- 
tam, Homer  and  Hesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome,  Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordinaly  in  the 
Plural  I^umber: 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perierunt,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished,  Cic.  Ego 
et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I are  well.  Cic.  Tu  et  TuUiu  caletis,  You. 
and  Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

1.  Person. — With  subjects  differing  in  Person,  the  verb  takes  the  First 
Person  rather  than  the  Second,  and  the  Second  rather  than  tae  Third*  as  in 
the  examples  just  given. 

2.  Participles. — See  43 ft. 

8.  Two  Subjects  as  a Unit. — Two  singular  subjects  foiming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a singular  verb : 

Senatus  popiilusque  intelligit.  The  senate  and  people  (i.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  necessitasque  postulat.  Time  and  necessity 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.  Cic. 

4.  Subjects  with  Aut  or  Nec. — With  singular  subjects  connected  by 
aut^  vel,  neCy  neque  or  seUy  the  verb  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  sub- 
ject, but  with  subjects  differing  in  person,  it  is  generally  Plur.  : 

Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  Either  Brutus  or  Cassius  judged.  Cic. 
Haec  neque  6go  neque  tu  fecimus.  Neither  you  nor  I have  done  these  things. 
Ter. 


SECTION  II. 

VSE  OF  VOICES. 

464.  Ill  a transitive  verb,  the  Active  voice  represents 
the  subject  as  acting  upon  some  object,  the  Passive,  as  act- 
ed upon  by  some  other  person  or  thing : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic.  A Deo  omnia 
facta  sunt,  All  things  were  made  by  God.  Cic. 

465.  Active  and  Passive  Construction. — ^With  trans- 
itive verbs,  a thought  may  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer  be 
expressed  either  actively  or  passively.  But 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  eonstruction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ; and 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the 
ablative  with  a or  «6,  for  persons,  without  it  for  things:  (371.6) ; 


TOICES*  TENSES. 


215 


Deus  oiiinia  Constituit,  God  ordained  all  things^  or?  A Deo  omnia  consti- 
tuta sunt,  All  things  were  ordained  by  God.  Cic.  Dei  providentia  mundum 
-K^dministrat,  The  'providence  of  God  rules  the  worlds  or : Dei  providentia 
C^undus  administratur.  The  world  is  ruled  by  the  providence  of  God.  Cic. 

1,  The  Passive  Voice  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Act.  with  a reflex- 
pronoun,  like  the  Greek  Middle : 

' Lavantur  in  fluminibus.  They  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in  the  rivers.  Caes. 

2.  Intransitive  Verbs  (193)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  but 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive  : 

Curritur  ad  praetorium.  They  run  to  the  praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 

3 Deponent  Verbs,  though  Passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transi- 
tive or  intransitive ; 

Illud  mirabar,  I admired  that.  Cic.  Ab  urbe  proficisci,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.  Caes. 

4.  Semi  Deponents  (271,  3)  have  some  of  the  Active  forms  and  some  of 
the  Passive,  without  change  of  meaning. 


y 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 


I.  Present  Indicative. 


466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of 
the  verb  as  taking  place  at  the  present  time : 

Ego  et  CicSro  valemus,  Cicero  and  I are  well.  Cic.  Hoc  te  rogo,  1 
a^lc  you  for  this.  Cic. 

467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used, 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at 
the  present  time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  belong’ ng  to  all  time,  be- 
long of  course  to  the  present,  general  truths  and  customs: 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  Nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat.  Fortune  helps  the  brave.  Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for 
effect,  to  picture  before  the  reader  as  present.  The  Present,  when 
so  used,  is  called  the  Historical  Present : 

Jugurtha  vallo  moenia  circumdat,  Jugurtha  surrounds  the  city  with  a 
rampart.  Sail. 

1.  Historical  Present.-— The  historical  present  may  sometimes  be 
best  rendered  by  the  English  Imperfect,  and  sometimes  by  the  English 
Present,  as  that  has  a sis^ilar  historical  use. 


TENSES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE, 


21<) 


2.  Present  with  Jamdiu,  Jamdudum, — The  Present  is  often  used  of  a 
present  action  which  has  been  going  on  for  some  time,  rendered  have,  espe- 
cially after  jamdiu,  jamdudum,  etc. 

Jamdiu  ignoro  quid  %as,  I have  not  knoivn  for  a long  time  what  you 
are  doing.  Cic. 

1)  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  the  same  way  of  a past  action  w’hich  had  been 
going  on  for  some  time.  Thus  in  the  example  above,  Jamdiu  ignorabam,  would 
mean,  1 had  not  known  for  a long  time. 

2)  The  Present  in  the  Infinitive  and  Participle  is  used  in  the  same  way  of  an 
action  which  has  been  or  had  been  going  on  for  some  time. 

3.  Present  applied  to  Authors. — The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English, 
may  be  used  of  authors  whose  works  are  extant : 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates 
discussing.  Cic, 

4.  Present  with  Dum. — With  dum,  in  the  sense  of  while,  the  Present 
is  generally  used,  even  of  past  actions ; 

Dum  ea  parant,  Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  While  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations,  Saguntum  was  attacked.  Liv. 

5.  Present  for  Future. — The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action 
really  future,  especially  in  conditions : 

Si  vincimus,  omnia  ttita  erunt,  Jf  we  conquer,  all  things  will  'be  safe.  Sail. 


II.  Imperfect  Indicative. 

46S.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
taking  place  in  past  time  : 

Stabant  nobilis^mi  juvenes,  There  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble 
youths.  Liv.  Colies  oppiiium  cingebant,  Hills  encompassed  the  town.  Caes. 

469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially 

I.  In  lively  description.,  whether  of  scenes  or  events ; 

Ante  oppidum  planities  patebat,  Before  the  town  extended  a plain. 
Caes.  Fulgentes  gladios  videbant,  They  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming 
swords.  Cic, 

II.  Of  customary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  render- 
ed by  was  wont,  etc, : 

Pausanias  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  Pausanias  was  wont  to  banquet 
in  the  Persian  style.  Nep. 

1.  Imperfect  of  Attempted  Action.-— The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used 
of  an  attempted  or  intended  action  : 

Sedabant  tumultus,  They  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.  Liv. 

2.  Imperfect  in  Letters. — See  472,  1. 


FUTURE  AND  PERFECT. 


217 


III.  Future  Indicative. 


470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
one  which  will  take  place  in  luture  time ; 

Scribam  ad  te,  / will  write  to  you.  Cic.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  We 
shall  never  go  astray,  Cic. 


1.  Fotuke  with  Imperative  Force.— In  Latin  as  in  English,  the  Future 
Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  an  Imperative  : 

Cflrabis  et  scribes,  You  will  take  care  and  write.  Cio. 

2.  Latin  Future  for  English  Present.— Actions  which  really  belong 
to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  expressed  by  the  Future  Tense,  though 


sometimes  put  in  the  present  in  English : „ ^ , 

Naturam  si  sequSmur,  nunquam  aberrabimus.  If  we  follow  nature,  we 


shall  never  go  astray.  Qtic.  -n  a t 

3.  Future  Indicative  with  Melius.— With  melius  the  Future  Indicati  e 

has  often  the  force  of  the  Subjunctive : ^ j?  * 

Melius  peribimus,  wouU  perish  rather,  or  it  would  be  better  for  us  to 

perish.  Liv. 


IV.  Perfect  Indicative. 


471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses: 

I.  As  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite,  it 
represents  the  action  as  at  present  completed,  and  is  ren- 
dered by  our  Perfect  with  have : 

De  genere  belli  dixi,  I have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war.  Cic. 

II.  As  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefi- 
nite, it  represents  the  action  as  a simple  historical  fact : 

Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep. 

1.  Perfect  of  what  has  ceased  to  be.— The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used 
where  the  emphasis  rests  particularly  on  the  completion  of  the  action,  im- 
plying that  what  was  true  of  the  past,  is  not  true  of  the  present : 

Habuit,  non  habet,  He  had,  hut  has  not.  Cic.  Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  was. 
Virg. 

2.  Perfect  Indicative  with  Paene,  Prope.— The  Perfect  Indicative 
with  paene,  prope,  may  often  be  rendered  by  might,  would,  or  by  the  Plu- 
perfect Indicative : 

Brutum  non  minus  amo,  paene  dixi,  quam  te,  / love  Brutus  not  less,  1 
might  almost  say,  or  I had  almost  said,  than  I do  you.  Cic. 

3.  Perfect  for  English  Present.— The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the 
Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the  English  uses  the  Present  and  Imperfect, 
especially  in  repeated  actions,  and  in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297). 


218 


PLUPERFECT  AKD  FUTURE  PERFECT. 


MSminit  praeteritorum,  He  remembers  the  past,  Cic.  Quum  ad  villam 
reni,  hoc  me  delectat.  When  I come  (have  come)  to  a villa^  this  pleases  me, 
Cic.  1 remembered  Paulus,  Cic. 

4.  Perfect  with  Postquam. — Postquam^  ut^  ut  prlmum^  etc.,  in  the 
sense  of  as  soon  aSy  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect ; sometimes  by  the 
Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.  But  the  Pluperfect  is  generally  used  of 
repeated  actions ; also  after  postquam  when  a long  or  definite  interval 
intervenes : 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell.  Virg.  Anno 
tertio  postquam  profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled,  Kep. 

1)  As  a Rare  Exception  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postquam  (posteaquam) : Posteaquam  aedificasset  classes,  after  he  had  built  fleets, 
Cic. 

V.  Pluperfect  Indicative. 

472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action 
as  completed  at  some  definite  past  time  : 

Copias  quas  pro  castris  collocaverat,  reduxit,  He  led  hack  the  forces 
which  he  had  stationed  before  the  camp,  Caes. 

1.  Tenses. — In  letters  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  time  of 
the  reader,  using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  for  the  Present,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect for  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect ; 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem  : ad  tuas  omnes  epistolas  rescripseram, 
I have  (had)  nothing  to  write : I have  already  replied  to  all  your  letters  (I  had 
replied,  i.  e.,  before  writing  this).  Cic. 

1)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  Future  actions,  as  events  which  happen 
after  the  writing  of  the  letter  but  before  the  receipt  of  it  will  hci  Future  to  the  writer 
but  Past  to  the  reader. 

2.  Pluperfect  for  English  Imperfect. — See  471.  3. 

3.  Pluperfect  to  denote  Rapidity. — The  Pluperfect  sometimes  denotes 
rapidity  or  completeness  af  action  : 

Urbem  luctu  compleverant,  They  (had)  filled  the  city  with  mourning. 
Curt. 


VI.  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  ac- 
tion as  one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time : 

Romam  quum  venero,  scribam  ad  te.  When  I shall  have  reached  RomCy 
I will  write  to  you.  Cic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  ilium  fortasse  convenero. 
When  you  read  thiSy  I shall  perhaps  have  already  met  him.  Cic. 

1.  Future  Perfect  to  denote  Certainty. — The  Future  Perfectis  some' 
times  used  to  denote  the  speedy  or  complete  accomplishment  of  the  work : 

Ego  moil  in  ofiToinm  ]>raestTf  . I will  surely  discharge  my  duty.  Caea. 


INDICATIVE  AND  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


219 


2.  The  Flture  Perfect  for  English  Present  or  Future  is  rare,  but 
occurs  in  conditional  clauses  : 

Si  interpretari  potuero,  his  verbis  utitur,  If  lean  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  himy  he  uses  these  words,  Cic. 

SECTION  IV. 

USE  OF  THE  INDICATIVE, 

rule  XXXVL— Indicative. 

474.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  the  world,  Cic.  Nonne  expul- 
sus est  patria,  Was  he  not  banished  from  his  country  i Cic.  Hoc  feci,  dum 
licuit,  / did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted,  Cic. 

475.  Special  Uses. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used 
where  our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive  : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (612.  2) : 

Haec  conditio  non  accipienda  fuit,  This  condition  should  not  have  been 
accepted,  Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  IndicativCy  particularly  the  Fluperfecty 
are  sometimes  used  for  Effecty  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so  : 

VicerSmus,  nisi  recepisset  Antonium,  We  should  have  {jit.  had)  coyi-^ 
queredy  had  he  not  received  Antony,  Cic.  See  511.  2. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  AdverbSy  made  general  by  being  doubled  or 
by  assuming  the  suffix  cunque  (187.  4),  take  the  Indicative : 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sapiens.  Whoever  he  iSy  he  is  wise,  Cic.  Hoc  ulti- 
mum, utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fuit,  ThiSy  however  it  was  commenced y 
was  the  last  battle,  Liv. 

4.  In  Expressions  of  Duty y JNecessihjy  Ability y and  the  like,  the  Latin 
often  uses  the  Indicative  where  the  English  does  not : 

Tardius  quam  debuerat,  more  slowly  than  he  should  have  done.  Cic. 

1)  So  also  in  sum  with  aequumy  par^  justumy  melius,  vtiliuSy  longumydifftcUCy 
ind  the  like : Longum  est  persequi  utilitates,  It  would  he  tedious  (is  a long  task)  to 
enumerate  the  uses.  Cic. 

SECTION  Y. 

TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJ  UNCTIVE. 

476.  Tense  in  the  Subjunctive  does  not  designate  the 
time  of  the  action  as  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative,  but  it 
marks  with  great  exactness  its  continuance  or  completion. 


220 


TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


477.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  express  Incomplete 
action : 

Valeant  elves,  May  the  citizens  he  well.  Cic.  Utmam  vera  invenire 
possem,  0 that  I were  able  to  find  the  truth.  Cie. 

478.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  express  Completed 
action : 

Oblitus  es  quid  dixerim,  You  have  forgotten  what  I said.  Cic.  ThS- 
mistocles,  quum  Graeciam  lib^rasset,  expulsus  est,  Themistocles  was  ban- 
ished^ though  he  had  liberated  Greece.  Cic. 

479.  The  Future  Tenses  are  wanting  in. the  Subjunctive:  the  mood 
itself — used  only  of  that  which  is  merely  conceived  and  uncertain — is  so 
nearly  related  to  the  Future,  that  those  tenses  are  seldom  needed.  Their 
place  is  however  supplied,  when  necessary,  by  the  periphrastic  forms  in 
Tus  (481.  III.  1), 

480.  Sequence  of  Tenses. — The  Subjunctive  Tenses 
in  their  use  conform  to  the  following 


EULE  XXXVII —Sequence  of  Tenses. 


Principal  tenses  depend  upon  Principal  tenses : His- 
torical upon  Historical : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Nemo  erit  qui  censeat. 
There  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem.  You 
had  asked^  whether  I did  not  think.  Cic. 


481.  Application  of  the  Eule. — In  accordance  with  this 
rule, 


I.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  a Principal  tense— 
present  perfect  f uture.,  future  perfect — is  put, 

1.  In  the  Present  for  Incomplete  Action: 


Video  quid  agas, 
Vidi  quid  agas, 
Videbo  quid  agas, 
Videro  quid  agas. 


I see  what  you  are  doing. 

1 have  seen  what  you  are  doing. 
I shall  see  what  you  do. 

I shall  have  seen  what  you  do. 


2.  In  the  Perfect  for  Completed  Action  : 


Video  quid  egSris, 
Vidi  quid  egeris, 
Videbo  quid  egeris, 
Videro  quid  egeris, 


I see  what  you  have  done. 

1 have  seen  what  you  have  done. 

I shall  see  what  you  have  done. 

J shall  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 


221 


II.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  a Historical  tense — im- 
•perfect^  historical  perfect^  pluperfect — is  put, 

1.  In  the  Imperfect  for  Incomplete  Action : 

Videbam  quid  ageres,  I saw  what  you  were  doing, 

Vidi  quid  ageres,  I saw  what  you  were  doing. 

Videram  quid  ageres,  I had  seen  what  you  were  doing. 

2.  In  the  Pluperfect  for  Completed  Action : 

Videbam  quid  egisses,  I saw  what  you  had  done. 

Vidi  quid  egisses,  I saw  what  you  had  done. 

Videram  quid  egisses,  I had  seen  what  you  had  done. 

III.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  conform  to  the  rule : 

Video  quid  acturus  sis,  I see  what  you  are  going  to  do. 

Videbam  quid  acturus  esses,  I saw  what  you  were  going  to  do. 

1.  Future  Supplied.— The  Future  is  supplied  when  necessary  (479),  (1) 
by  the  Present  i or  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rws, 
or  (2)  hj  futurum  sit  ut,^  with  the  regular  Present,  futurum  esset  ut,  with 
the  regular  Imperfect.  The  first  method  is  confined  to  the  Active,  the  sec- 
ond occurs  in  both  voices  : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futUra  sit,  It  is  uncertain  how  long  life 
will  continue.  Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent.  It  was  uncer- 
tain whither  they  would  send  the  fled.  Liv. 

2.  Future  Perfect  Supplied.— The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied,  when 
necessary,  hj  futurum  sit  ut,  with  the  Perfect,  A futurum  esset  ut,  with 
the  Pluperfect.  But  this  circumlocution  is  rarely  necessary.  In  the  Passive 
it  is  sometimes  abridged  to  futurus  sim  and  futurus  essem,  with  the  Perfect 
participle : 

Non  diibito  quin  confecta  jam  res  futura  sit,  I do  not  doubt  that  the  thing 
will  have  been  already  accomplished,  Cic. 

lY.  The  Historical  Present  is  treated  sometimes  as  a Prin- 
cipal tense,  as  it  really  is  in  Form,  and  sometimes  as  a Historical 
tense,  as  it  really  is  in  Sense  * 

1.  As  Principal  tense  according  to  its  Form  : 

Ubii  orant,  ut  sibi  parcat,  The  Ubii  implore  him  to  spare  them.  Caes. 

2.  As  Historical  tense  according  to  its  Sense : 

Persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  He  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize 
the  government.  Caes. 

V.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  often  refers  to  present  time, 
especially  in  conditional  sentences  (510.  1);  accordingly,  "when 
thus  used,  it  is  treated  as  a Principal  tense  : 

1 The  Present,  of  course,  after  Principal  tenses,  and  the  Imperfect  after  Histori- 
cal tenses,  according  ^o  480. 

2 Futurum  «lY,  etc.,  after  Principal  tenses,  d,n^futtlrum  esset,  etc.,  after  Historl 
cal  tenses. 


222 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 


Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locis  hostes  fuderit,  I might  (now)  state  in 
what  places  he  routed  the  enemy,  ball. 

YL  The  Peesent  and  Futuee  Infinitives,  Present  and  Future 
Paeticiples,  as  also  Geeunds  and  Supines,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb 
on  which  they  depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (540. 571) : 

Spero  fore  ^ ut  contingat,  I hope  it  will  happen  (I  hope  it  will  be  that 
it  may  happen).  Cic.  Non  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent.  He  had  not 
hoped  that  they  would  revolt  to  him.  Liv. 

482.  Peculiarities  in  Sequence. — The  following 
peculiarities  in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

1.  Aftee  Peefeot  Tense. — The  Latin  Perfect  is  sometimes 
treated  as  a Historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have.,  and 
thus  admits  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  haberes  exposui,^  nunc  dicam.  Since  I have 
shown  what  aids  you  have  (or  had),  I will  now  speak.  Cic. 

2.  Aftee  Histoeical  Tenses. — Conversely  Historical  tenses, 
when  followed  by  clauses  denoting  consequence  or  result,  often  con- 
form to  the  law  of  sequence  for  Principal  tenses,  and  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect  : 

Epaminondas  fide  sic  usus  est,  ut  possit  judicari,  Epaminondas  used 
such  fidelity  that  it  may  he  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excellebat  Aristides  ab- 
stinentia, ut  Justus  sit  appellatus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self-control,  that 
he  has  been  called  the  Just.  Nep. 

This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  Eesult  of  a past  action  may  itself 
be  present  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a Principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs 
to  the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used ; possit  judicari.^  may  be  judged  now;  when 
it  is  represented  as  at  present  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used : sit  appellatus.,  has 
been  called  i.  e.  even  to  the  present  day;  but  when  it  is  represented  as  simulta- 
neous with  the  action  on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance 
with  the  general  rule  of  sequence  (480). 

3.  In  Indieect  Discouese,  Oeatio  Obliqua. — In  indirect  dis- 
course (528.  and  533.  1)  dependent  upon  a Historical  tense,  the 
narrator  often  uses  the  Principal  tenses  to  give  a lively  effect  to 
his  narrative  ; occasionally  also  in  direct  discourse : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis : Neque  ullos  vacare  agros,  qui  dari  possint  * 
The  close  of  the  oration  was,  that  there  were  (are)  not  aiiy  lands  unoccupied 
which  could  (can)  be  given.  Caes. 


^ H&TQfore  shares  the  tense  of  spero.,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present 
contingatA^^  below  it  shares  the  tense  of  speraverat.,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by 
the  Imperfect  deficerent. 

2 Exposui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perf.  Def.  with  have,  is  in  the  Latin 
treated  as  the  Historical  Perf.  The  thought  is  as  follows:  Since  in  the  preceding 
topics  I set  forth  the  aids  which  you  had,  I will  now  speak,  &c. 


SEOTIOIsr  YI. 

USE  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

483.  The  Subjunctive  represents  the  action  of  the  verb, 
not  as  an  actual  fact,  but  as  something  supposed  or  con- 
ceived. It  may  denote  that  the  action  is  conceived, 

1.  As  Possible,  Potential. 

2.  As  Desirable.. 

3.  As  a Purpose  or  Eesult. 

4.  As  a Condition. 

5.  As  a Concession. 

6.  As  a Cause  or  Reason. 

7.  As  an  Indirect  Question.  ^ ^ 

8.  As  dependent  upon  another  subordinate  action  : (1)  By  At- 
traction after  another  Subjunctive,  (2)  In  Indirect  Discourse. 

484.  Varieties.— The  Subjunctive  in  its  various  uses 
may  accordingly  be  characterized  as  follows  : 

I.  The  Potential  Subjunctive. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire. 

III.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result 

IV.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition. 

V.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession. 

VI.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Reason. 

VII.  The  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions. 

VIII.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction. 

IX.  The  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse. 


I.  The  Potej^tial  Subjunctive. 

RULE  XXXVIII.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  represents  tlie  ac- 
tion not  as  real,  but  as  possible : 

Forsitan  quaeratis,  Perhaps  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dixe- 
rit, No  one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Huic  cedamus,  hujus  conditiones  audia- 
mus, Shall  we  yield  to  him.,  shall  we  listen  to  his  terms  ? Cic.  Quis 
diibitet  (=  nemo  dubitat).  Who  would  doubt,  or  who  doubts  (—no  one 
doubts)  ? Cic.  Quid  facerem.  What  was  I to  do,  or  what  should  I have- 
done  ? Yirg. 

486.  Application  of  the  Rule.— In  the  Potential 
sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used. 


/ 


•! 


224 


POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 


I.  In  Declarative  Sentences^  to  express  an  affirmation  doubtful^ 
or  conditionally^  as  in  the  first  and  second  examples. 


II.  In  Questions  of  A'p'peal^  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  may 
be  or  should  be^  generally  implying  a negative  answer,  as  in  the 
last  example  under  the  rule. 


III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses^  whatever  the  connective,  to  rep- 
resent the  action  as  possible  rather  than  real: 


Quamquam  Epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  he  without  its 
^easts.  Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  he  able.  Caes. 
Jbi  res  posceret,  whenever  the  case  might  demand,  Liv. 

Here  the  Subjunctive  after  quamquam,,  quoniam,,  and  ijCbi,,  is  entirely  indepen- 
dent of  those  ccnjunctions.  In  this  way  many  conjunctions  which  do  not  require  the 
Subjunctive,  admit  that  mood  whenever  the  thought  requires  it. 

1.  Use  op  the  Potential  Subjunctive. — This  Subjunctive,  it  will  be 
observed,  has  a wide  application,  and  is  used  in  almost  all  kinds  of  sen- 
tences and  clauses,  whether  declarative  or  interrogative,  principal  or  sub- 
' K ordinate,  whether  introduced  by  conjunctions  or  relatives. 


2.  How  rendered, — The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  generally  best  rendered 
by  our  Potential  signs — may^  can^  must,,  might,  etc.,  or  by  shall  or  will. 


3.  Inclination. — The  Subjunctive  sometimes  denotes  inclination  ; 
Ego  censeam,  I should  think,  or  lam  inclined  to  think,  Liv. 


4.  Imperfect  for  Pluperfect. — In  the  Potential  sense,  the  Imperfect 
is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect : dlch'cs,  you  would 
have  said  ; crederes, putares,  you  would  have  thought;  videres,  cerneres,  you 
would  have  seen ; 


Moesti,  crederes  victos,  redeunt  in  castra.  Sad,  vanquished  you  would 
have  thought  them,  they  returned  to  the  camp,  Liv. 


5.  Subjunctive  of  Repeated  Action. — Subordinate  clauses  in  narration 
sometimes  take  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  that  the  action  is  often  or  indefi- 
nitely repeated.  Thus  with  uhi,  whenever,  quoties,  as  often  as,  qulcunque, 
whoever,  ut  quisque,  as  each  one,  and  the  like : 

Id  fetialis  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat,  The  fetial  priest  was  wont  to 
hurl  a spear  whenever  (i.  e.,  every  time)  he  had  said  this.  Liv. I 

6.  Present  and  Perfect.— In  the  Potential  Subjunctive\the  Perfect 

often  has  nearly  the  same  force  as  the  Present : ^ 

Tu  Platonem  laudaveris.  You  would  praise  Plato.  Cic.  ^ , 

1)  The  Perfect  with  the  force  of  the  Present  occurs  also  in  some  of  the  other 
uses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

7.  Conditional  Sentences. — The  Subjunctive  in  the  conclusion  of  con- 
ditional sentences  is  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  but  conditional  sentences 
will  be  best  treated  by  themselves.  See  502. 

1 These  are  also  variously  called  Deliberative,  Doubting,  or  Rheioi^u-id 
Q 'i.Astions. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


225 


II.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desiee. 


EULE  XXXIX.— Desire,  Command. 


487.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  represents  the  ac- 
tion not  as  real,  but  as  desired : 

Valeant  cives,  May  the  citizens  he  well.  Cic.  Amemus  patriam,  Let  us 
love  our  country,  Cic.  Kobore  utare.  Use  your  strength,  Cic.  Scribere 
ne  pigrSre,  Do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 


488.  Application  of  the  Eule. — The  Subjunctive  of  Desire 


is  used, 

I.  To  express  a wish,  as  in  prayers^  exhoi^tations^  and  entrea- 
ties., as  in  the  first  and  second  examples. 

II.  To  express  a command  mildly,  as  in  admonitions^  ;preceptSy 
and  warnings.,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

1.  With  Utinam.— The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by 
utmam,  and  sometimes— especially  in  the  poets,  by  ut,  si,  osz.’ 

Utinam  conata  efficto  possim,  May  I he  able  to  accomplish  my  endeav- 


ors. Cic.  , . , . v 

2.  Force  of  Tenses.— The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 

be  fulfilled  ; the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  cannot  be  fulfilled  : 

Sint  beati,  May  they  he  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  Do  not  cross 
the  Ebro.  Liv.  Utinam  possem,  utinam  potuissem.  Would  that  I were  ahle^ 
would  that  I had  been  able.  Cic.  See  also  486.  6.  1). 

The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  be  best  rendered,  i^hould  have  been, 

ought  to  have  been:  ^ , 7j 

Hoc  diceret,  He  should  have  said  this.  Cic.  Mortem  oppetiisses,  Jou  should 

have  met  death.  Cic. 

3.  Negative  Ne.— With  this  Subjunctive  the  negative  is  ne,  rarely  non  .■ 
Ne  audeant,  Let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Non  r6c6danius,  Let  us  not  recede. 


4.  In  Asseverations.— The  first  person  of  tlie  subjunctive  is  often  found 
in  earnest  or  solemn  affirmations  or  asseverations  . i 

Moriar,  si  piito.  May  I die,  if  I think.  Cic.  Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribo, 

May  I not  be  safe,  if  I write.  Cic. 

So  with  ita  and  sic : Sollicitat,  ita  vivam,  As  I Uve,  %t  troubles  me.  Cic. 
Here  ita  vivam  means  literally,  may  I so  live,  i.  e.,  may  I live  only  in  case  tins 


is  true. 

5.  In  Relative  Clauses.— Tiie  Subjunctive  of  desire  is  sometimes  used 

in  relative  clauses : , . i • • 

Quod  faustum  sit,  regem  create.  Elect  a king,  and  may  it  be  an  auspicious 
event  (may  which  be  auspicious).  Liv.  Senectus,  ad  quam  Mnam  pervfenia- 
tis,  old  age,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 


226 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


III.  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result. 

EULE  XL.— Purpos3  or  Eesult, 

489.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result  is  used, 

I.  With  ut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  quominus  : 

Purpose. — Enititur  ut  vinbat,  He  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic. 
Punit  ne  peccetur,  He  punishes  that  crime  may  not  he  committed.  Sen. 

Result. — Ita  i^jxit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  He  so  lived  that  he 
was  very  dear  to  t^e\AtMnians.  Nep. 

II.  With  qui  ^s^iis,  ut  ego,  tu,  etc. : 

Purpose. — Missi  ^sbnt,  qui  {ut  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  They  were 
sent  to  consult  Apioltot^Q  should  or  that  they  should).  Nep. 

Result.— Non  is  sttj^Mui  {ut  ego)  his  utar,  1 am  not  such  an  one  as  to 
use  these  things.  Cic.-  ^ 

1.  J^t  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  with  fdcio^  or  dgo.  rarely  with  esi 
a circumlo^tion  for  the  Indicative  : fdcio  ut  dicam  = dico ; fdcio  ut  scribam  — 
scribo:  Invitus  facio  ut  recorder,  1 unwillingly  recall.  Cic. 


Conjunctions  of  Purpose  or  Pesult. 


^ 493.  ITt  and  Ne. — TJt  and  ne  are  the  regular  conjunc- 
tions in  clauses  denoting  Purpose  or  Result.  Ut  and  ne 
denote  Purpose  ; ut  and  ut  non^  Result. 

1.  With  connective  ne  becomes  neve.,  neu,  rarely  n^que.  Neve,  neu,  = aut  ne  or 
et  ne : Legem  tulit  nequis  accusaretur  neve  multaretur,  Ile  proposed  a law  that  no 
one  should  be  accused  or  punished.  Nep. 

491.  Pure  Purpose. — Tit  and  ne — that.,  in  order  that., 
that  not.,  in  order  that  not.,  lest.,  etc. — are  used  after  verbs 
of  a great  variety  of  significations  to  express  simply  the 
Purpose  of  the  action.  A correlative — ideo.,  idcirco.,  etc. 
— may  or  may  not  precede  : 

Legura  idcirco  servi  siimus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus,  We  are  servants 
of  the  law  for  this  reason,  that  we  may  be  free.  Cic.  See  also  the  examples 
under  the  Rule. 

492.  Mixed  Purpose.— In  their  less  obvious  applica- 
tions, ut  and  oie  are  used  to  denote  a Purpose  which  par- 
takes more  or  less  of  the  character  of  a Direct  Object, 
sometimes  of  a Subject,  Predicate  or  Appositive — Mixed 
Purpose.  Thus  with  verbs  and  expressions  denoting 

1.  Effort. — striving  for  a purpose ; attaining  a purpose : 

nitor,  contendo,  stiideo, — euro,  id  Sgo,  dpSram  do,  etc.,  fScio,  efficio, 
impetro,  consequor,  etc. : 


PURPOSE  OR  RESULT. 


227 


Contendit,  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Ciiravi  ut  bene  vivfe' 
rem,  Itooh  care  to  lead  a good  life.  Sen.  Effecit  ut  impSrator  mittSretur, 
He  caused  a commander  to  le  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.  But  see  495. 

2.  Exhoktation,  Impulse — urging  one  to  effort : 

admoneo,  moneo,  hortor,— cOgo,  impello,  moveo, — oro,  rogo, — impero, 
praecipio,  etc. : 

Te  hortor  ut  legas,  I exhort  you  to  read,  Cic,  Movemur  ut  boni  simuS; 
We  are  influenced  to  he  good,  Cic.  Te  rogo  ut  eum  juves,  I ash  you  to  aid 
him,  Cic.  See  also  551.  II.  1 and  2 ; 558.  VI, 

3.  Desike  and  its  Expression  : hence  decision,,  decree,,  etc. : 

opto,  postulo, — censeo,  decerno,  statuo,  constituo,  etc, — rarely  v51o, 
colo,  malo : 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  1 desire  (pray)  that  you  may  hear  this,  Cic.  Sana- 
tus censuerat,  iiti  Aeduos  defenderet.  The  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should, 
defend  the  Aedui,  Caes.  See  551.  II.  and  558,  II,  and  VI. 

4.  Fear,  DangePw  : 

metuo,  timeo,  vereor, — periculum  est,  cura  est,  etc. : 

Timeo,  ut  sustineas, endure  them,  Cic.  \6reor  ne 
laborem  augeam,  Ifear  that  I shall  increase  the  labor,  Cic. 

1)  By  a Difference  of  Idiom  ut  mast  here  be  rendered  that  not,  and  ne  by  that 
or  lest.  The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a wish,  a desired  purpose. 

2)  After  verbs  of  fearing  ne  non  is  sometimes  used  for  ut^  regularly  so  after 
negative  clauses:  Vereor  ne  non  possit,  Ifear  that  he  icill  not  he  able.  Cic. 

3)  After  verbs  of  fearing,  especially  v^reor.,  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  used : 
Vereor  laudare,  I fear  (hesitate)  to  praise,  Cic. 

493.  Peculiarities. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present 
the  following  peculiarities: 

1.  Ut  ne,,  rarely  ut  non,,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne  : 

Praedixit,  ut  ne  legatos  dImittSrent,  He  charged  them  not  to  (that  they 

should  not)  release  the  delegates,  Nep.  Ut  plura  non  dicam,  not  to  say  more^ 
i.  e.,  that  I may  not.  Cic. 

2.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  with  rolo^  nolo,,  mdlo^ 
fdcio,,  and  verbs  of  directing,  urging,  etc.  JSfe  is  often  omitted 
with  care : 

Tu  velim  sis,  1 desire  that  you  may  he,  Cic.  Fac  habeas,  see  (make)  that 
you  have,  Cic.  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  dperam  consules.  The  senate  de- 
creed that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.  See  also  535.  1,  2). 

8.  Clauses  with  Ut  and  Ne  may  depend  upon  a noun  or  upon 
a verb  omitted : 

Fecit  pacem  his  conditionibus,  ne  qui  afficerentur  exsilio.  He  made  peace 
on  these  terms,  that  none  should  he  punished  with  exile,  Nep.  Ut  ita  dicam, 
so  to  speak  (that  I may  speak  thus).  Cic.  This  is  often  inserted  in  a sen- 
tence, like  the  English  so  to  speak. 

11 


228 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


4.  Nedum  and  Ne  in  the  sense  of  much  hss^  not  to  say^  are  used 
with  the  Subjunctive : 

Vix  in  tectis  frigus  vitatur,  nedum  in  mari  sit  facile,  The  cold  is  avoided 
with  difficulty  in  our  houses^  much  less  is  it  easy  {to  avoid  it)  on  the  sea,  Cic. 

494.  Pure  Result. — Ut  and  ut  non — so  that^  so  that 
not — are  often  used  with  the  Subjunctive,  to  express  simply 
a Result  or  a Consequence : 

Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  cSrissimus,  He  so  lived  that  he  was 
very  dear  to  the  Athemam,  Nep.  Ita  laudo,  ut  non  pertimescam,  1 so 
praise  as  not  to  fear.  Cic. 

A correlative — Ita  in  these  examples — generally  precedes:  thus, 
ddeo^  tantopere^ — tdlis.^  tanius.,  ejusmodi. 

495.  Mixed  Result. — In  their  less  obvious  applica- 
tions, ut  and  ut  non  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  de- 
note a Result  which  partakes  of  the  character  of  a Direct 
Object.^  Subject.,  Fredicate^  or  A f positive : Thus 

1.  Clauses  as  Object  and  Eesult  occur  Niihfdcio,  efficio.,  of 
the  action  of  irrational  forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  The  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom,  i.  e,, 
produces  that  result.  Cic.  See  492.  1. 

2.  Clauses  as  Subject  and  Result  occur  with  impersonal  verbs 
signifying  it  happens,  remains,  follows,  is  distant,  etc. : 

accidit,  contingit,  evenit,  fit,  restat,— sequitur,— abest,  etc. 

Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur,  The  resuit  is  (it  hayigens)  that  every  one  is 
delighted,  Cic.  Sequitur  ut  falsum  sit.  It  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic. 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  used  when  the  predi- 
cate is  a Noun  or  Adjective  with  the  copula  sum  : 

Mos  est  ut  nolint.  It  is  their  custom  not  to  he  willing  (that  they  are  un. 
willing).  Cic.  Proximum  est,  ut  doceam.  The  next  point  is,  that  I show. 
Cic.  See  556.  I.  1 and  2. 

2)  Subjunctive  Clauses  with  ut,  in  the  form  of  questions  expressive  of 
surprise,  sometimes  stand  alone,  by  the  omission  of  some  predicate,  as  <yre~ 
dendum  est,  verisimile  est,  is  it  to  be  credited,  is  it  probable  ? 

Tu  ut  unquam  te  corrigas,  that  you  should  ever  reform  f i.  e..  Is  it  to  be 
supposed  that  you  will  ever  reform  ? Cic. 

8)  See  also  556  with  its  subdivisions. 

3.  Clauses  as  Appositiye  and  Result,  or  Peedioate  and 
Result,  occur  with  Demonstratives  and  a few  Nouns  : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet.  Virtue  has  this  advantage,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  hoc  vitium,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  There  is  this  fault,  that 
envy  is  the  companion  of  glory.  Nep. 


PURPOSE  OR  RESULT. 


229 


496.  Peculiarities.— Expressions  of  Result  present 
the  following  peculiarities : 

1.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  regularly  so  with  oportet^  generally 
with  opus  est  and  necesse  est : 

Te  oportet  virtus  trahat,  It  is  necessary  that  virtue  should  attract  you. 
Cic.  Causam  habeat  nScesse  est,  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a cause. 
Oic 

2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  Quam — with  or  without  ut : 

Liberalius  quam  ut  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 

be  able).  Nep.  Imponebat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent.  He  imposed  more 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  Tantum  abest.— Mtev  tantum  abest  ut,  denoting  result,  a 
second  ut  of  result  sometimes  occurs  : 

Philosophia,  tautum  abest,  ut  laudetur  ut  etiam  vituperetur.  So  far  is  it 
from  the  truth  (so  much  is  wanting),  that  philosophy  is  praised  that  it  is  even 
censured.  Cic. 

497.  Quo. — Quo,  hy  lohieh^  that.,  is  sometimes  used 
for  ut.,  especially  with  comparatives  : 

Medico  dare  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  physician,  that  (by  this 
means)  he  may  he  more  attentive.  Cic. 

For  non  quo  of  Cause,  see  520.  3. 

498.  Quin.— Quin  (qui  and  ne),  hy  which  not,  that 
not,  is  often  used  to  introduce  a Purpose  or  Result  alter 
negatives  and  interrogati ves  implying  a negative.  Thus 

1.  Quin  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ne  and  ut  non  : 

RStineri  non  potSrant,  quin  tela  conjicerent,  They  could  not  be  re- 
strained from  hurling  (that  they  might  not)  their  weapons.  Caes.  Nihil  est 
tarn  difficile  quin  {ut  non)  investigari  possit,  Nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.  Ter. 

After  verbs  of  hindering.^  opposing,  and  the  like,  quin  has  the  force  of  ne, 

2.  Quin  is  often  used  after  Nemo,  Nullus,  Nihil,  Quis  f 

Adest  nemo,  quin  videat,  There  is  no  one  present  who  does  not  see.  Cic. 

Quis  est  quin  cernat.  Who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  f Cic. 

Is  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quin  : 

Nihil  est  quin  id  intereat.  There  is  nothing  which  does  not  perish.  Cic. 

8.  Quin  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  that,  hut  that,  without 
with  a participial  noun,  especially  after  negative  expressions,  im- 
plying doubt,  uncertainty,  omission,  and. the  like: 

Non  est  dubium  quin  beneficium  sit.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a bene- 
fit. Sen.  Nullum  intermisi  diem  quin  aliquid  darem,  I allowed  no  day  to 


230 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


pasSy  without  giving  something . Cic.  Facfire  non  possum  quin  littfirasmit-  . 
tarn,  I cannot  hut  send  a letter,  Cic. 

1)  Such  expressions  are;  non  dubito,  non  dubium  est— non  multum  abest,  pau- 
lum abest,  nihil  ubest,  quid  abest?— non,  vix,  aegre  abstineo;  mihi  non  tempero; 
non,  nihil  praetermitto— facere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest. 

2)  The  Infinitive,  for  Quin  with  the  Subjunctive,  occurs  with  verbs  of  doubting  r 

Quis  dubitat  patere  Europam,  Who  douUs  that  Europe  is  exposed  f Curt. 

8)  Non  Quin  of  Cause.  See  520.  3. 

4)  Quin  is  used  in  questions  in  the  sense  of  why  not  ? and  with  the  Imperative 
in  the  sense  of  well^  hut : Quin  agite,  hut  come.  Virg.  It  occasionally  means  nay* 
even^  rather, 

499.  Quominus.— Quominus  (quo  and  minus),  that 
thus  the  less,  that  not,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne  and  ut  non, 
after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing,  and  the  like  : 

Non  deterret  sSpientem  mors  quominus  reipublicae  consulat,  Death  does 
not  deter  a wise  man  from  deliheratwg  for  the  republic.  Cic.  Non  recusavit, 
quominus  poenam  siiblret.  He  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  punishment.  Nep. 
Per  eum  stetit  quominus  dimicaretur.  It  was  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him),  that  the  engagement  was  not  made.  Caes. 

1.  Expressions  of  hindering^  etc.,  are;  deterreo,  impedio,  prohibeo,  obsto, 
obsisto,  officio, — recuso,  per  me  stat,  etc. 

2.  Verbs  oi  hindering  admit  a variety  of  constructions ; the  Infinitive,  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut^  ne^  quo^  quin^  or  qummnus. 


Relatioe  of  Purpose  or  Pesiilt. 

500.  A Relative  Clause  denoting  a Purpose  or  a Re- 
suit  is  equivalent  to  a clause  with  ut,  denoting  purpose  or 
result,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason.  The 
relative  is  then  equivalent  to  ut  with  a pronoun : qui  — ut 
ego,  ut  tu,  ut  is,  etc. : 

Purpose. — Missi  sunt  qui  (ut  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  They  were  sent 
to  consult  Apollo  (who  should,  or  that  they  should).  Nep.  Missi  sunt  delecti 
qui  Thermopylas  occuparent.  Picked  men  were  sent  to  take  possession  of 
Thermopylae.  Nep. 

Result. — ^Non  is  sum  qui  (=  rd  ego')  his  utar,  I am  not  such  a one  as  to 
use  these  things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  affectio  talis  animi,  quae  {^=.  ut  ea)  no- 
ceat nemini.  Innocence  is  such  a state  of  mind  as  injures  no  one^  or  as  to  hi- 
jure  no  one.  Cic. 

1.  Eelative  Particles. — The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  same  way  in  clauses 
introduced  by  relative  particles  ; uhi^  unde^  etc. ; 

Domum  iibi  habitaret,  legit,  FJe  selected  a house  that  he  might  dwell  in  it 
(where  he  might  dwell).  Cic. 


PURPOSE  OK  RESULT. 


231 


2.  Purpose  and  Result.— Relative  clauses  denoting  purpose  are  readily  recog- 
nized; those  denoting  result  arc  used,  in  their  more  obvious  applications,  after  such 
words  as  iam^  so ; is,  ejusmodi,  such, as  in  the  above  examples ; but  see  also  501. 

3.  Indicative  after  Talis,  etc. — In  a relative  clause  after  tdlis,  is,  etc.,  the 
Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  t\iefact : 

Mihi  causa  talis  oblata  est,  in  qua  oratio  deesse  ncrnini  Such  a cause  has 

been  offered  me,  (one)  in  which  no  one  can  fail  of  an  oration.  Cic. 

£01.  Relative  clauses  of  Result,  in  their  less  obvious 
vapplications,  include, 

I.  Eelative  clauses  after  Indefinite  and  General  antecedents. 
Here  tam.^  tdlis.,  or  some  such  word,  may  often  he  supplied  : 

Nunc  dicis  ^liquid  {ejusmodi,  or  tale)  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  Now  you 
state  something  which  belongs  to  the  subject  (i.  e.,  something  of  such  a charac- 
ter as  to  belong,  etc.).  Cic.  Sunt  qui  piitent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  qui  non  cupiat,  there  is  no  one  xcho  does  not  desire,  i.  e.,  such  as  not 
to  desire.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  same  way  quod,  or  a relative  particle,  iibi,  unde,  quo,  cur,  etc.,  with 
the  Subjunctive,  is  used  after  est,  there  is  reason,  non  est,  nihil  est,  there  is  no  reason, 
quid  est,  what  reason  is  there  ? non  hdbeo,  nihil  hdbeo,  I have  no  reason: 

Est  quod  gaudeas.  There  is  reason  why  you  should  rejoice,  or  so  that  you  may. 
Plant.  Non  est  quod  credas,  There  is  no  reason  why  you  should  believe.  Sen. 
Nihil  habeo,  quod  incusem  senectutem,  I have  no  reason  why  I should  accuse  old 
age.  Cic. 

2.  Indicative  after  Indefinite  Antecedent.— A Relative  clause  after  an 
indefinite  antecedent  also  takes  the  Indicative,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made 
prominent : 

Sunt  qui  non  audent  dlc^-re.  There  are  some  who  (actually)  do  not  dare  to 
speak.  Cic.  Multa  sunt,  quae  dici  possunt,  There  are  many  things  which  may  be 
said.  Cic.  So  also  clauses  with  Rel.  particles.  See  1 above. 

In  poetry  and  late  prose  the  Indicative  often  follows  sunt  qui  .* 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  zchom  it  delights.  Ilor. 

8.  Restrictive  Clauses  with  quodj,  as  quod  sciam,  as  far  as  I know ; quod 
meminerim,  as  far  as  I remember,  etc.,  take  the  subjunctive. 

II.  Eelative  clauses  after  TJnus,  Solus,  and  the  like,  take  the 
subj  unctive : 

Sapientia  est  una,  quae  moestitiam  pellat,  Wisdom  is  the  only  thing 
which  dispels  sadness  (such  as  to  dispel).  Cic.  Soli  centum  erant  qui  creari 
possent.  There  were  only  one  hundred  who  could  be  appointed  (such  that 
they  could  be).  Liv. 

III.  Eelative  clauses  after  Dignus,  Indignum,  Idoneus,  and  Ap>- 
tus  take  the  subjunctive  : 

Fabulae  dignae  sunt,  quae  legantur.  The  fables  are  worthy  to  be  read 
(that  they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Rufum  Caesar  idoneum  judicavbrat  quern 
mittSret,  Caesar  had  judged  Rufus  a suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
send).  Caes. 


232 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


ly.  Kelative  clauses  after  Comparatives  with  Quam  take  the 
subjunctive : 

Damna  majora  sunt  quam  quae  { — ut  ea)  aestimari  possint,  The  losses 
are  too  great  to  he  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).  Liv. 

IV,  Subjunctive  of  Condition. 

502.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct parts,  expressed  or  understood, — the  Condition  and 
the  Conclusion: 

Si  negem,  mentiar,  If  I should  deny  it,  I should  speak  falsely,  Cic. 

Here  si  negem  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar,  the  conclusion. 


RULE  XLI.— Subjunctive  of  Condition. 

503.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition  is  used, 

I.  With  dum,  mbdo,  dummbdo: 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  Mental  powers  remain,  if 
only  industry  remains,  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tanquam,  tanquam  si, 
valut,  velut  si; 

Crudelitatem,  velut  si  adesset,  horrebant,  They  shuddered  at  his  cruelty, 
ecs  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

III.  Sometimes  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  qui  =:  si  is,  si  quis ; 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  numerare.  The  day  would  fail  me,  if  I should 
wish  to  recount,  Cic.  Improbe  feceris,  nisi  monueris.  You  would  do  wrong, 
if  you  should  not  give  warning.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dlmicasset.  If  he  had 
wished,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep. 

1.  Si  Omitted. — Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  some- 
times have  the  force  of  a conditional  sentence : 

NSgat  quis,  nego,  Does  any  one  deny,  I deny.  Ter.  Kdges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam, Should  you  ask  me,  I should  make  no  reply.  Cic.  See  also  Imper- 
ative, 535.  2. 

2.  Condition  Supplied. — The  condition  may  be  supplied, 

1)  Participles : Non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentes  {si  dlrigi- 
tis),  retinere  virtutem.  You  cannot  retain  your  manhood,  if  you  arrange  all 
things  with  reference  to  pleasure.  Cic. 

2)  By  Oblique  Cases:  Nfimo  sine  spe  {nisi  spem  haberet)  se  offerret  ad 
mortem.  No  one  without  a hope  (if  he  had  not  a hope)  would  expose  himself 
to  death.  Cic. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


283 


8.  Irony.— The  condition  is  sometimes  ironical,  especially  with  nisi 
vero,  nisi  forte  with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi,  quasi  viro  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive : 

Nisi  forte  insanit,  unless  perhaps  he  is  insane.  Cic.  Quasi  vero  necesse 
sit,  as  if  indeed  it  were  necessary.  Caes. 

4 Ita SI,  ETC. — Ita — 5^*,  so — if,  means  only — if  Si^uideniy  if  indeed, 

sometimes  has  nearly  the  force  of  since. 

5.  Et  omitted. — See  587.  I.  6. 

504.  Force  of  Tenses. — In  conditional  sentences  the 
Present  and  Perfect  tenses  represent  the  supposition  as  not 
at  all  improbable,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  represent 
it  as  contrary  to  the  fact.  See  examples  above.  See  also 
476  to  478. 

1.  Present  for  Imperfect. — The  Present  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  Imperfect,  when  a condition,  in  itself  contrary  to  reality,  is  stili  con- 
ceived of  as  possible  : 

Tu  si  hie  sis,  aliter  sentias.  If  you  were  the  one  (or,  should  be),  youivould 
think  differently.  Ter. 

2.  Imperfect  for  Pluperfect. — The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  some- 
times used  for  the  Pluperfect,  with  the  nice  distinction  that  it  contemplates 
the  supposed  action  as  going  on,  not  as  completed  : 

Num  Opimium,  si  turn  esses,  temerarium  civem  putares?  Would  you 
think  Opimius  an  audacious  citizen,  if  you  were  living  at  that  time  (Pluperf. 
would  you  have  thought — if  you  had  lived)  ? Cic. 

505.  Dum,  Mono,  Dummodo. — Dum,  mbdo,  and  dum- 
modo, m conditions,  have  the  force  of — if  only provided 
that.,  or  with  ne,  if  only  not^  provided  that  not : 

Dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant.  Let  them  make  words,  if  only  the  facts 
remain.  Cic.  Modo  permaneat  industria,  if  only  industry  remains.  Cic. 
Dummodo  repellat  periculum,  provided  he  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  Modo  no 
laudarent,  if  only  they  did  not  praise.  Cic. 

When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjunctions  often  admit  the  indicative  : 

Dum  leges  vigebant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

503.  Ac  SI,  Ut  si.  Quasi,  etc. — Ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si, 
quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut,  velut  si,  involve  an 
ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion  : 

MisSrior  es,  quam  si  ociilos  non  habfires.  You  are  more  unhappy  than 
(esses,  you  would  be)  if  you  had  not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  velut  si  ades- 
set, horrebant.  They  shuddered  at  his  cruelty  as  (they  would)  if  he  were  pres- 
ent.  Caes.  Ut  si  iu  suam  rem  aliena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  approprU 
ate  other i possessions  to  their  own  use.  Cic.  Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they 
may  hear.  Sen. 

Ceu  and  Slcuti  are  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way: 

Ceu  bella  forent,  as  if  there  were  wars.  Virg.  Siciiti  audiri  possent,  as  if  they 
could  he  heard.  Sail. 


234 


subjunctivi:. 


507.  Si,  Nisi,  Ni,  Sin,  Qui. — The  Latin  distinguishes 
three  distinct  forms  of  the  conditional  sentence  with  sij 
msi,  ni,  sin: 

I.  Indicative  in  botli  Clauses. 

II.  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Perfect,  in  both  Clauses. 

III.  Subjunctive,  ImjDerfect  or  Pluperfect,  in  both 
Clauses. 

508.  First  Form. — Indicative  in  both  Clauses. — This 
form  assumes  the  supposed  case  as  rea/,  basing  upon  it 
any  statement  which  would  be  admissible,  if  it  were  a 
known  fact : 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  If  this  is  a state^  I am  a citizen.  Cia 
Si  non  licebat,  non  necesse  erat,  If  it  luas  not  lawful^  it  was  not  necessary. 
Cic.  Dolorem  si  non  potero  frangere,  occultabo,  ^ I shall  not  he  able  to 
overcome  sorrow^  I will  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvi  sunt  foris  arma,  nisi  est 
consilium  domi,  Arms  are  of  little  value  ahroady  unless  there  is  wisdom  at 
home.  Cic. 

1.  Condition. — The  condition  is  introduced,  when  affirmative,  by  si, 
with  or  without  other  particles,  as  quidem^  modo,  etc.,  and  when  negative, 
by  si  noUy  nisi,  ni.  The  time  may  be  either  jyresenty  fast,  or  future.  See 
examples  above. 

2.  Conclusion. — The  conclusion  may  take  the  form  of  a command  : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce.  If  Ihav  e erred  ^ far  don  me.  Cic. 

3.  Si  non,  Nisi. — Si  non  and  nisi  are  often  used  without  any  percepti- 
ble difference  of  meaning;  but  strictly  si  non  introduces  the  negative  con- 
dition on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while  nisi  introduces  a qualifica- 
tion or  an  exceftion.  Thus  in  the  second  example  above  the  meaning  is. 
If  it  was  not  lawful,  it  follows  that  it  was  not  necessai'y,  while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is.  Arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  except  when  there  is  wisdom 
at  home. 

509.  Second  Form. — Subjunctive  Present  or  Perfect  in 
both  Clauses. — This  form  assumes  the  condition  as  possible: 

Haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  If  your  country 
should  speak  thus  with  you,  ought  she  not  to  obtain  her  request  ? Cic.  Im- 
probe feceris,  nisi  monueris.  You  would  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give 
warning.  Cic.  See  also  examples  under  the  Kule,  503  ; also  486.  7. 

1.  When  dependent  upon  a Historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are 
of  course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for 
Sequence  of  tenses  (480). 

Metuit  no,  si  iret,  retraheretur,  He  feared  lest  if  he  should  go,  he  might 
be  brought  bach.  Liv, 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


235 


610.  Third  Form. — Subjunctive  Imperfect  or  Pluper- 
fect in  both  Clauses. — This  form  assumes  the  supposed  case 
as  contrary  to  the  reality.,  and  simply  states  what  would 
have  been  the  result,  if  the  condition  had  been  fulfilled : 

Sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  Wisdom  would  not  be 
sought  (as  it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing,  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  posse- 
mus, haud  sane  consilio  egeremus.  If  we  were  able  to  secure  the  highest 
good^  we  should  not  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dlmicasset.  If 
he  had  wished^  he  would  have  fought.  Nep.  Nunquam  abisset,  nisi  sibi 
viam  munivisset,  He  woidd  never  have  gone^  if  he  had  not  prepared  for 
himself  a way.  Cic.  See  also  486.  Y. 

1.  Here  the  Imperfect  relates  to  Present  time,  as  in  the  first  and  second 
examples : the  Pluperfect  to  Past  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

2.  In  the  Periphrastic  forms  in  rus  and  dus  and  in  expressions  of  Duty^ 
Necessity^  and  Ability,  the  Perfect  and  Imperfect  Indicative  sometimes  occur 
in  the  conclusion. 

Quid  futurum  fuit,  si  plebs  Sgitari  coepta  esset,  What  would  have  been 
the  result,  if  the  plebeians  had  begun  to  be  agitated  f Liv.  See  also  512.  2. 

1)  When  the  context,  irrespective  of  the  condition,  requires  the  Subjunctive, 
the  tense  remains  unchanged  without  reference  to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb : 

Adeo  est  inopia  coactus  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Galliam  repetiturus  fuerit,  Ile  was  so 
pressed  hy  want  that  if  he  had  not  feared,  he  would  have  returned  to  Gaul.  Liv. 

Here  repetiturus  fuerit  is  in  the  Subj.  not  because  it  is  in  a conditional  sentence, 
but  because  it  is  the  Subj.  of  Kesult  with  ut;  but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  because,  ii  it 
were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 

511.  Mixed  Fokms. — The  Latin  sometimes  unites  a 
condition  belonging  to  one  of  the  three  regular  forms  with 
a conclusion  belonging  to  another,  thus  producing  certain 
Mixed  Forms. 

I.  The  Indicative  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Condition  with  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  Conclusion,  but  here  the  Subjunctive  is  gener- 
ally dependent  not  upon  the  condition,  but  upon  the  very  nature 
of  the  thought : 

P^ream,  si  potSruiit,  May  I perish  (subj.  of  desire,  487),  if  they  shall 
be  able.  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beStus  fiiturus  sum.  Why  should  I fear 
(486.  II.),  if  I am  to  be  happy  f Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Condition  with 
the  Indicative  in  the  Conclusion.  Here  the  Indicative  often  gives 
the  effect  of  reality  to  the  conclusion,  even  though  in  fact  depend- 
ent upon  contingencies ; but  see  also  512  : 

Dies  deficiet,  si  velim  causam  defendere.  The  day  would  (will)  fail 
me,  if  I should  wish  to  defend  the  cause,  Cic.  Viceramus  nisi  recepisset 
Antonium,  We  had  conquered,  had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic. 


236 


SUBjraCTIVE. 


1.  The  Future  Indicative  is  often  thus  used  in  consequence  of  its  near  relation- 
ship in  force  to  the  Subjunctive,  as  whatever  is  Future  is  more  or  less  contingent. 
See  first  example. 

2.  The  Historical  tenses^  especially  the  Pluperfect^  are  sometimes  used,  for  effect^ 
to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something  which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have 
become  fully  so,  as  in  the  last  example. 

8.  Conditional  sentences  made  up  partly  of  the  second  form  (509)  and  partly  of 
the  third  are  rare. 

512.  Subjunctive  and  Indicative. — The  combination 
of  the  Subjunctive  in  the  Condition  with  the  Indicative  in 
the  Conclusion  is  often  only  apparent.  Thus 

1.  When  the  truth  of  the  conclusion  is  not  in  reality  affected  by  the 
condition,  as  when  si  has  the  force  of  even  if^  although  : 

Si  hoc  placeat,  tamen  volunt.  Even  if  (although)  this  pleases  them,  they 
still  ivish.  Cic. 

2.  When  that  which  stands  as  the  conclusion  is  such  only  in  appear- 
ance, the  real  conclusion  being  understood.  This  occurs 

1)  With  the  Indicative  of  Debeo,  Possum,  and  the  like  : 

Quern,  si  ullain  te  pietas  esset,  colere  debebas.  Whom  you  ought  to  have 
honored  (and  would  have  honored),  if  there  were  any  filial  affection  in  you, 
Cic.  DelSri  exercitus  potuit,  si  persecuti  victores  essent.  The  army  might 
have  been  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued,  Liv. 

2)  With  the  Imperfect  and  Perfect  Indicative  of  other  verbs,  especial- 
ly if  in  a periphrastic  conjugation  or  accompanied  by  Paene  or  Prope : 

Relicturi  agros  erant,  nisi  litteras  misisset.  They  were  about  to  leave  their 
lands  (and  would  have  done  so),  had  he  not  sent  a letter.  Cic.  Pons  iter 
paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  The  bridge  almost  furnished  apas~ 
sage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  done  so),  had  there  not  been  one  man.  Liv. 

513.  Relative  involving  Condition. — The  relative 
takes  the  subjunctive  when  it  is  equivalent  to  si  or  dunt 
with  the  subjunctive : 

Errat  longe,  qui  credat,  etc..  He  greatly  errs  who  supposes,  etc.,  i.  e., 
if  or  provided  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs.  Ter.  Haec  qui  videat, 
cogatur,  If  any  one  should  see  these  things,  he  would  he  compelled.  Cic. 


V.  Subjunctive  in  Concessions. 

514.  A concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or 
admits  something,  generally  introduced  in  Englisli  by 
though  or  although : 

Quamquam  intclligunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic. 


CONCESSIONS. 


237 


RULE  XLII  — Subjunctive  of  Concession. 

515.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession  is  used, 

I.  With  licet,  quamvis,  quantumvis,— ut,  ne,  quum  (although); 
Licet  irrideat,  plus  tamen  ratio  valebit,  Though  he  may  deride^  reason 

will  yet  avail  more.  Oic.  Ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudanda  voluntas, 
Though  the  strength  fails^  still  the  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 

II.  With  qui  = quum  (licet)  is,  quum  ego,  etc.,  though  he: 
Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  {quum  is)  se  fateatur  pecunias  cepisse,  Acquit 

Verres^  though  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  he  has  accepted  money. 
Cic. 

III.  Generally  with  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi : 

Quod  sentiunt,  etsi  optimum  sit,  tamen  non  audent  dicere.  They  do 
not  dare  to  state  what  they  think^  even  if  (though)  it  be  most  excellent.  Cic. 

516.  Concessive  Clauses  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes : 

I.  Concessive  Clauses  with  quamquam  in  the  best  prose 
generally  take  the  Indicative  : 

Quamquam  intelligunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  Thoiiglitltey  uihderctandy 
they  never  speak.  Cic. 

1.  The  Subjunctive  may  of  coarse  follow  quamquam,  whenever  the  thought 
itself,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires  that  moofl  (4S5). 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  even  in  the  best  prose,  sometimes  occurs  with  quamquam 
where  we  should  expect  the  Indicative:  Quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspicionem  habu- 
erit, Though  not  even  that  gave  rise  to  any  suspicion.  Cic. 

3.  In  poetry  and  some  of  the  later  prose,  the  subjunctive  with  quamquam  is  not 
uncommon.  In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction. 

4.  Quamquam  and  etsi  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet.  but  yet.  and  yet: 
Quamquam  quid  loquor,  And  yet  what  do  I say?  Cic. 

II.  Concessive  Clauses  with  Ucet.^  quamvis.,  quantumvis., 
— ut^  ne.,  quum  (although); — qui  = quum  (or  licet)  is,  ego, 
tu,  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Non  t'u  possis,  quantumvis  excellas.  You  would,  not  he  able,  however  much 
(although)  you  excel.  Cic.  Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est. 
Though  pain  may  not  he  the  greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil.  Cic.  See  518. 

I.  Ut  and  Ne. — This  concessive  use  of  ut  aud  ne  may  readily  be  ex- 
plained by  supplying  some  verb  like  fac  or  sine : thus,  ut  desint  vires  (515. 
I.)  =/ac  or  sine  ut  desint  vires,  make  or  grant  that  strength  fails.  See  489. 
The  Concessive  Particle  is  sometimes  omitted  : 

Sed  habeat,  tamen,  But  grant  that  it  has  it.  yet.  Cic. 

Ut — SIC  or  ita,  as— so.  though— yet.  does  not  require  the  subjunctive. 


238 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


2.  Quamvis  and  Quantumvis. — These  are  strictly  adverbs,  in  the  sens^ 
of  however  mucky  but  they  generally  give  to  the  clause  the  force  of  a conces- 
sion. When  used  with  their  simple  adverbial  force  to  qualify  adjectives, 
they  dp  not  affect  the  mood  of  the  clause  : quamvis  multiy  however  many. 

3.  Mood  with  Quamvis. — In  Cicero  and  the  best  prose,  quamvis  takes 
the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception,  generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos  j 
but  in  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  it  often  admits  the  Indicative  : 

Erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine.  He  was  of  royal  dignity y 
though  he  was  without  the  name.  Nep. 

4.  Relative  in  Concessions. — The  relative  denoting  concession  is  equiv- 
alent to  licety  or  quum,  in  the  sense  of  thoughy  with  a Demonstrative  or  Per- 
sonal pronoun,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason  : qui  = licei 
(quum)  iSf  licet  egOj  tUf  etc.  See  examples  under  the  Rule,  515. 

III.  Concessive  Clauses  with  the  compounds  of  si : etsi^ 
Uiams%  tametsi  in  the  use  of  Moods  and  Tenses  conform 
to  the  rule  for  conditional  clauses  with  8% : 

Etsi  nihil  habeat  in  se  gloria,  t^men  virtutem  sequitur.  Though  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself,  yet  it  follows  virtue.  Cic,  Etiamsi  mors 
oppetenda  esset,  even  if  death  ought  to  he  met.  Cic, 

VI.  Subjunctive  of  Cause  and  Time. 

RULE  XLIII.— Sutjunctive  of  Cause. 

517.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Reason  is  used^ 

I.  With  quum  (cum),  since ; qui  = quum  is,  etc. : 

Quum  vita  metus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  quuiu 
Ita  sint,  perge,  Since  these  things  are  so,  proceed.  Cic.  0 vis  veritatis, 
quae  {quum  ea)  se  defendat,  O the  force  of  truths  since  it  defends  Itself.  Cic. 

II.  With  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  to  introduce  a reason  on 
another’s  authority : 

Socrates  accQsatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem.  Boci^ates  was  ac» 
cusedy  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 

Causal  Clauses  with  Quum  and  Qui. 

518.  Quum.^ — Quum  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  it  de- 
notes, 

I.  Cause  or  Concession  : 

Quum  sint  in  nobis  rStio,  prGdentia,  since  there  is  in  us  reason  and  pru» 
dence.  Cic,  Phocion  fuit  pauper,  quum  divitissimus  esse  posset,  Phocion 
was  poor,  though  he  might  have  been  very  rich.  Nep.  See  also  515. 


CAUSE  AND  TIME. 


239 


II.  Time  with  the  accessory  notion  of  Cause  or  Con- 
cession : 

Quum  dimicaret,  occisus  est,  When  he  engaged  battle,  he  was  slain.  Nep. 
ZSnonem,  quum  Athenis  essem,  audiebam  frequenter,  I often  heard  Zeno, 
when  I was  at  Athens,  Cic. 

1.  Quum  in  Narration, — Quum  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Sut 
junctive  is  very  frequent  in  narration  even  in  temporal  clauses.  See  exam 
pies  under  II.  above. 

This  use  of  Quum  with  the  Subjunctive  may  in  most  instances  be  readily  ex 
plained  by  the  fact  that  it  involves  Cause  as  well  as  Time.  Thus  quum  dimicaret, 
ill  the  first  example,  not  only  states  the  time  of  the  action— est,  but  also  its 
cause  or  occasion : the  engagement  was  the  occasion  of  his  death.  So  with  quum 
essein,  as  presence  in  Athens  was  an  indispensable  condition  of  hearing  Zeno.  But  in 
gome  instances  the  notion  of  Cause  or  Concession  is  not  at  all  apparent. 

2.  Quum  with  Tempus,  etc. — Quum  with  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes 
used  to  characterize  a period  : 

Id  saecdlum  quum  plena  Graecia  poetarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such 
that)  Greece  was  full  of  poets,  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  quum  desideres,  the  time 
will  come,  when  you  will  desire,  Cic.  So  without  tempus,  etc. : Fuit  quum 
arbitrarer,  there  was  (a  time)  when  I thought,  Cic. 

3.  Quum  with  Indicative.— denoting  time  merely,  with  perhaps 
a few  exceptions  in  narration,  takes  the  Indicative : 

Quum  quiescunt,  probant.  While  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Pa- 
ruit, quum  necesse  erat,  He  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary,  Cic. 

519.  Qui,  Cause  or  Reason. — A Relative  clause  de- 
noting cause  or  reason,  is  equivalent  to  a Causal  clause  with 
Quum,  and  takes  the  Subjunctive  for  the  same  reason: 

0 fortflnate  Adolescens,  qui  {quum  iu)  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  praeco- 
nem inveneris,  0 fortunate  youth,  since  you  (lit.  who)  have  obtained  Homer 
as  the  herald  of  your  valor,  Cic. 

1.  Equivalents.— In  such  clauses,  qui  is  equivalent  to  quum  ego,  quum 
tu,  quum  is,  etc. 

2.  Indicative.— When  the  statement  is  to  be  viewed  ‘dsafact  rather  than 
as  a reason,  the  Indicative  is  used : 

Habeo  sfinectati  gratiam,  quae  mihi  sermonis  Aviditatem  auxit,  I cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation,  Cic. 

3.  Qui  with  Conjunctions. — When  a conjunction  accompanies  the  rela- 
tive, the  mood  varies  with  the  conjunction.  Thus, 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  quum,  quippe,  ut,  utpbte  : 

Quae  quum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  Quippe  qui  blandia- 
tur, since  he  flatters.  Cic.  Ut  qui  coloni  essent,  since  they  were  colonists.  Cic. 

But  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia,  quoniam  : 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  non  possunt,  since  these  things  cannot  be  sure.  Clo. 
Qui  qu6niam  intelligi  noluit,  since  he  did  not  wish  to  be  understood,  Cic. 


240 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Causal  Clauses  with  Quod^  Quia^  Quoniam^  Quando, 

620,  Quod^  quia^  quoniam^  and  quando  generally  take, 

1.  The  Indicative  to  assign  a positively  on  onds 

own  authority  : 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  nince  a thanksgiving  has  been  decreed, 
Cic.  Gaude  quod  spectant  te,  Rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you,  Hor. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  to  assign  a reason  doubtfully^  or 
on  another'* s ojuthority: 

Aristides  nonne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  justus  esset.  Was  not  Aris- 
tides banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  was  just  ? Cic. 

1.  Quod  with  Dico,  etc.— anSiputo  are  often  in  the  Subjunctive 
instead  of  the  verb  depending  upon  them : 

Quod  se  bellum  gesturos  dicerent  = quod  bellum  gesturi  essent,  ut  dice- 
bant, because  they  were  about ^ as  they  saidy  to  wage  war,  Caes. 

2.  Clauses  with  Quod  Unconnected.  See  554.  IV. 

3.  Non  Quo,  etc. — Non  quOy  non  quody  non  quiny  rarely  non  quiOy  also 
quam  quody  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  that  something  was 
mt  the  true  reason  : 

Non  quo  haberem  quod  scribSrem,  not  because  (that)  I had  anything  to 
write.  Cic.  Non  quod  doleant,  not  because  they  are  pained.  Cic.  Quia  ne- 
quiverat quam  quod  ignoraret,  because  he  had  been  unabUy  rather  than  because 
he  did  not  know.  Liv. 

4.  Potential  Subjunctive.  See  485  and  486. 

EULE  XLIV.— Time  with  Cause. 

521.  The  Subjunctive  of  Time  with  the  accessory 
notion  of  Cause  or  Purpose  is  used, 

I.  With  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until: 

Exspectas  dum  dicat.  You  are  waiting  till  he  speaksy  i.  e.,  that  he  may 
speak.  Cic.  Ea  continebis  quoad  te  videam,  You  will  keep  them  till  I see 
you.  Cic. 

II.  With  antequam,  priusquam,  before,  before  that : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam,  exponam  consilium,  I will  set  forth  my 

plan  before  I (can)  speak  of  the  republiCy  i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking 
of  the  republic.  Cic,  Priusquam  incipias,  before  you  begin.  Sail. 

1.  Explanation. — Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as 
time  : dum  dlcat  is  nearly  equivalent  to  ut  dicaty  which  is  also  often  .used 
after  exspecto.  Antequam  dicam  is  nearly  equivalent  to  ut  postea  dicam i 
I will  set  forth  my  views,  that  I may  afterw^ards  speak  of  the  republic. 


CAUSE  AND  TIME. 


241 


2.  With  otheh  Conjunctions.— The  Subjunctive  may  of  course  be  used 
to  any  temporal  clause,  when  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  temporal  par- 
ticle, requires  that  mood  ; see  486.  III. 

Ubi  res  posceret,  whenever  the  case  might  require,  Liv. 

522.  Dum,  Donec,  and  Quoad  take 

I.  The  Indicative^ — (1)  in  the  sense  of  as  long 

as,  and  (2)  in  the  sense  of  until,  if  the  action  is  viewed  as 
an  actual  fact : 

Dum  leges  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laics  were  in  force,  Cic.  Quoad 
renuntiatum  est,  until  it  was  (actually)  announced.  Nep. 

II.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  not  so 
much  as  a fact  as  something  desired  or  proposed : 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  Let  them  defer  it,  till  their  anger  cools, 
i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool.  Cic.  See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

1.  Donec,  in  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive  : 

Rhenus  servat  violentiam  cursus,  donec  Oceano  misceatur,  The  Rhine 
'preserves  the  rapidity  of  its  current,  till  it  mingles  with  the  ocean,  Tac. 

2.  Donec,  in  Livy,  occurs  with  the  Subjunctive  even  in  the  sense  of 
while,  but  with  the  accessory  notion  of  cause: 

Nihil  trepidabant  donec  ponte  agerentur.  They  did  not  fear  at  all  whiU 
(and  because)  they  were  driven  on  the  bridge.  Liv. 

523.  Antequam  and  Priusquam  generally  take, 

I.  The  Indicative,  when  they  denote  mcj-e  priority  of 
time : 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  They  are  present  h fore  it  is  light.  Cic.  An- 
tequam in  Siciliam  veni,  before  I came  into  Sicily.  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive,  when  they  denote  a dependence 
of  one  event  upon  another.  Thus, 

1.  In  any  Tense,  when  the  accessory  notion  of  purpose  or  cause  is  in- 
volved : 

Priusquam  incipias,  consulto  opus  est.  Ref  ore  you  begin  there  is  need  of 
deliberation,  i.  e.,  as  preparatory  to  your  beginning.  Sail.  Tempestas  mina- 
tur, antequam  sufgat,  The  tempest  threatens,  before  it  rises,  i.  e.,  the  threaten- 
ing of  the  tempest  naturally  precedes  its  rising.  Sen. 

2.  In  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  as  the  regular  construction  innatr- 
ration,  because  the  one  event  is  generally  treated  as  the  occasion  or  natu- 
ral antecedent  of  the  other.  See  also  471.  4. 

Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before  they  tool  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam 
de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in  Macedoniam  perrexi.  Ref orethey  were 
able  to  hear  of  my  approach,  1 went  into  Macedonia,  Cic. 

3.  Pridie  qvam  takes  the  same  moods  as  Priusquam, 


242 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1)  Indicative  or  Sdbjdnctive. — With  anUquam  b.vA priu8quam^\}^^  Indicf*- 
tive  and  Subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  without  any  apparent  difference  of  meaning, 
but  the  Subjunctive  probably  denotes  a closer  connection  between  the  two  events: 

Ante  de  incommodis  dico,  pauca  dicenda,  Before  I (actually)  speak  of  disad’^ 
vaiitages^  a few  things  should  he  mentioned.  Cic.  Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam, 
exponam  considum,  Before  I speak  of  the  repuhlic^  I will  set  forth  my  plan.  Cic. 

2)  Ante— QD AM,  Prius— quam.— The  two  parts  of  which  anUquam^  priusquam.^ 
and  postquam  are  compounded  are  often  separated,  so  that  ante.,  prius.,  or  post 
stands  in  the  principal  clause  and  quam  in  the  subordinate  clause : 

Paucis  ante  diebus,  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  a few  days  before  Syracuse 
was  taken.  Liv.  See  Tmesis,  704.  IV.  8. 

VII.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Questions. 

624.  A clause  which  involves  a question  without  dl 
rectly  asking  it,  is  called  an  indirect  or  dependent  question. 

EULE  XLV.— Indirect  Gaestions. 

625.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Indirect  Questions : i 

Quid  dies  f^rat  incertum  est,  What  a day  may  bring  forth  is  uncer- 
tarn.  Cic.  Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  It  is  a question^  , 
why  the  most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you 
had  asked  whether  I did  not  think.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit. 

The  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  ! 

1.  With  Interrogatives.— or  Dependent  questions,  like  those 
not  dependent,  are  introduced  by  interrogative  words : quid,  cur,  nonne, 
qualis,  etc.-j  rarely  by  si,  sive,  sen,  whether;  ut,  how.  See  examples  above. 

2.  Substantive  Indirect  questions  are  used  substantively,  and 

generally,  though  not  always,  supply  the  place  of  subjects  or  objects  of  verbs. 

But  an  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of 
the  question,  is  sometimes  inserted  after  the  leading  verb. 

Ego  ilium  nescio  qui  fuferit,  I do  not  know  (him),  who  he  was.  Ter. 

3.  Direct  and  Indirect. — An  indirect  question  may  be  readily  changed 
to  a direct  or  independent  question. 

Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is:  Quid  dies  f^ret. 
What  will  a day  bring  forth  ? So  in  the  second : Cur  doctissimi  homines  dissenti- 
unt, Why  do  the  most  learned  men  disagree  ? 

4.  Subjunctive  Omitted. — After  nescio  quis,  I know  not  who  = quldam, 

some  one ; nescio  quomodo,  I know  not  how,  etc.,  as  also  after  mlrum  quan- 
tum, it  is  wonderful  how  much  = wonderfully  much,  very  much,  there  is  an 
ellipsis  of  the  Subjunctive  : ‘ 

Nescio  quid  animus  praesSgit,  The  mind  forebodes,  I know  not  what  (it 
forebodes,  praesagiat,  understood).  Ter.  Id  mirum  quantum  prOfuit,  Thu 
profited,  it  is  wonderful  how  much,  i.  e.,  it  wonderfully  profited.  Liv. 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 


243 


5.  Indirect  Questions  Distinguished. — Indirect  Questions  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  certain  similar  forms.  Thus, 

1)  I'rom  Relative  Clauses— Clsm&es  introduced  by  Relative  Pronouns  or 
Relative  Adverbs  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, and  are  never,  as  a whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a verb,  while 
Indirect  Questions  are  generally  so  used  ; 

Dicam  quod  sentio  (^vel,  clause)*  I will  tell  that  which  (id  quod)  I thiuL. 
Cic.  Dicam  quid  intelligam  {indirect  question)^  I ivill  tell  what  I know. 
Cic,  Quaeramus  iibi  maleficium  est,  Let  us  seek  there  (ibi)  where  the  cri/ine 
is.  Cic. 

In  the  first  and  third  examples,  quod  sentio  and  ubi—est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses;  id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod.,  and  \bi  as  the  antece- 
dent or  correlative  oixthi  ; but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intelVigam  is  an  indirect 
question  and  the  object  of  dlcam : 1 will  tell  (what  ?)  what  I know,  i.  e.,  will  answer 
that  question. 

2)  From  Direct  Questions  and  Exclamations  ; 

Quid  agendum  est?  Nescio,  is  to  be  done?  I know  not,  Cic. 

Vide ! quam  conversa  res  est.  See  ! how  changed  is  the  case,  Cic. 

6.  Indicative  in  Indirect  Questions. — The  Indicative  in  Indirect  Ques- 
tions is  sometimes  used  in  the  poets  ; especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  memorare  v61im,  quam  fideli  animo  fui,  possum.  If  I wish  to  mention 
how  much  fidelity  I showed,  I am  able.  Ter. 

7.  Questions  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua.  See  530.  II.  2. 

526.  Single  and  Double  Questions.— Indirect  ques- 
tions, like  those  which  are  direct  (346.  II.),  , may  he  either 
single  or  double. 

I.  An  Indirect  Single  Question  is  generally  introduced  by  some  inter- 
rogative word — either  a pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or  one  of  the  parti- 
cles ne,  nonne,  num.  Here  nmn  does  not  imply  negation  : 

Rogitat  qui  vir  esset  (481.  IV.),  He  asked  who  he  was.  Liv.  EpSminon- 
das  quaesivit,  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  Epaminondas  inquired  whether  his 
shield;-  was  safe.  Cic.  Diibito  num  debeam,  I doubt  whether  I ought.  Phn. 
See  also  the  examples  under  the  Rule,  525. 

II.  An  Indirect  Double  Question  {y;1iether — or)  admits  of  two  con- 
structions : 

1.  It  generally  takes  uty'um  or  ne  in  the  first  member,  and  an  in  the 
second : 

Quaeritur,  virtus  suamne  propter  dignitatem,  an  propter  fructus  aliquos 
expetatur.  It  is  asked  whether  virtue  is  sought  for  its  own  worth,  or  for  cer- 
tain advantages.  Cic. 

2.  But  sometimes  it  omits  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  takes 
an  or  ne  in  the  second.  Other  forms  are  rare  : 

Quaeritur,  natura  an  doctrina  possit  effici  virtus.  It  is  asked  whether  vir- 
tue can  be  secured  by  nature  or  by  education.  Cic,  See  also  346.  1.  1). 


244 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


1)  In  the  second  member,  necne^  sometimes  an  non,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  or  not: 
Sapientia  beatos  eff  iciat  necne,  quaestio  est,  Whether  or  not  wisdom  makes  men 

happy,  is  a question.  Cic. 

2)  An,  in  the  sense  of  whether  not,  implying  an  affirmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty : dublto  an,  nescio  an,  hand  scio  an,  I 
doubt  whether  not,  I know  not  whether  not  = I am  inclined  to  think;  dubium  est 
an,  incertum  est  an,  it  is  uncertain  whether  not  = it  is  probable : 

Diibito  an  Thrasybulum  primum  omnium  ponam,  I doubt  whether  I should  no* 
place  Thrasybulus  first  of  all,  i.  e.,  I am  inclined  to  think  I should.  Nej). 

8)  sometimes  has  the  force  of  aut,  perhaps  by  the  omission  of  incertum  est, 
as  used  above ; 

Simonides  an  quis  Tilius,  Simonides  or  some  other  one.  Cic. 


VIII.  Subjunctive  by  Attraction. 

RULE  XLVI.— Attraction. 

527.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction  is  often  used 
in  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Subjunctive : 

Voreor,  ne,  dum  mmuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  I fear  I shall  in- 
crease the  labor.,  while  I wish  to  diminish  it,  Cie.  Tempus  est  hujusmodi, 
ut,  ubi  quisque  sit,  ibi  esse  minime  velit,  The  time  is  of  such  a character 
that  every  one  wishes  to  be  least  of  all  where  he  is.  Cic.  Mos  est,  ut  dicat 
sententiam,  qui  velit,  The  custom  is  that  he  ivho  wishes  expresses  his  opin- 
ion. Cic. 

1.  Application. — This  rule  is  applicable  to  clauses  introduced  by  con- 
junctions, adverbs,  or  relatives.  Thus,  in  the  examples,  the  clauses  intro- 
duced by  dum,  ubi,  and  qui,  take  the  subjunctive,  because  they  are  dependent 
upon  clauses  which  have  the  subjunctive. 

2.  Indicative  or  Subjunctive. — Such  clauses  generally  take, 

1)  The  Indicative,  when  they  are  in  a parenthetical  or  give  spe- 

cial prominence  to  the  fact  stated  : 

Milites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  fugSrant  persequerentur,  lie  sent  soldiers  to  pur- 
sue those  who  had  fed,  i.  e.,  the  fugitives.  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est, 
ut  earn,  vel  in  iis  quos  nunquam  vidimus,  diligamus,  Such  is  the  force  of  in- 
ierjrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  those  whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

The  Indicative  with  dum  is  very  common,  especially  in  the  poets  and  historians: 

FuGre  qui,  dum  dubitat  Seaevinus,  hortarentur  Pisonem,  There  were  tlujse  w.oo 
exhorted  Piso,  while  Scaevinus  hesitated.  Tac.  See  also  467.  4. 

2)  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  clauses  are  essential  to  the  general  thought 
of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  under  the  rule. 

3.  After  Infinitive  Clauses. — The  principle  just  stated  (2)  applies 
also  to  the  use  of  Moods  in  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Infinitive.  This 


ATTEACTION.  IKDIEECT  DISCOUESE.  245 

often  explains  the  Subjunctive  in  a condition  belonging  to  an  Infinitive, 

especially  with 

Nec  bonitas  esse  potest,  si  non  per  se  expetatur,  Nor  can  goodness  exist 
(=  it  is  not  possible  that),  if  it  is  not  sought  for  itself.  Cic. 

But  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Infinitive  are  found  most  frequently 
in  the  Oratio  Ohllgua  and  are  accordingly  provided  for  by  529. 


IX.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse, — 

Oratio  Obliqua, 

528.  When  a writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts, 
whether  his  own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than 
in  the  original  words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the 
Indirect  Discourse— Obliqua  : 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  They  say  that  Plato  came  i7ito 
Italy  Cic.  Respondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  moderate,  I reply  that  you  bear 
the  affliction  with  moderation.  Cic.  Utilem  arbitror  esse  scientiam,  I think 
that  knowledge  is  useful.  Cic. 

1.  Direct  and  Indirect. — In  distinction  from  the  Indirect  Discourse 
Oratio  Obliqua^  the  original  words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  Direct 
Discourse— Becta.  Thus  in  the  first  example,  Platonem ^ in  Italiam 
venisse  is  in  the  indirect  discourse ; in  the  direct,  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words 
of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it  would  be  : Plato  in  Italiam  venit. 

2.  Quotation.— Words  quoted  without  change  belong  of  course  to  the 

Direct  Discourse : ^ . -j  r 

Rex  “duumviros’'  xnquit  “ si^cundum  legem  facio,”  The  king  said^  “/ 

appoint  duumvirs  according  to  law.^\  Liv. 


RULE  XLVII— Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

529.  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  the  In- 
terrogative, Imperative,  and  Subordinate  clauses  of  the 
Oratio  Obliqua : 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  cur  veniret  {direct:  cur  renis  ?),  To 
the  demands  of  Caesar  he  replied,  why  did  he  come.  Caes.  Scnbit  Labieno 
cum  legione  vgniat  {direct:  cum  legione  veni),  He  writes  to  Labienus  k 
come  (that  be  should  come)  with  a legion.  Caes.  Hippias  gloriatus  est, 
annulum  quem  babSret  {direct : babeo)  se  sua  manu  confecisse,  Hippias 
boasted  that  he  had  made  with  his  own  hand  the  ring  which  he  wore.  Cic. 

UoTE.— For  convenience  of  reference  tbe  following  outline  of  tbe  us> 
of  Moods,  Tenses,  Pronouns,  etc.  in  tbe  Oratio  Obliqua  is  bere  inserted. 


246 


OEATIO  OBLIQUA. 


f' 


530.  Moods  m Peincipal  Clauses. — The  Principal^ 
clauses  of  the  Direct  discourse,  on  becoming  Indirect, 
undergo  the  following  changes  of  Mood : 

I.  When  Declarative^  they  take  the  Infinitive  (551)  : 

Dicebat  ammos  esse  dlvlnos  (direct:  ammi  sunt  divini),  He  was  wont 
to  say  that  souls  were  divine.  Cic.  PlStonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio\J)'i 
{Plato  Tarentum  venit\  I find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum,  Cic.  C^to  ^ 
mirari  se  {rnxror')  aiebat,  Cato  was  wont  to  say  that  he  wondered.  Cic.  \ 


II.  When  Interrogative  or  Imperative.,  they  generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  according  to  Rule  XL VII. 


1.  Verb  Omitted. — The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  is  often 
omitted,  or  only  implied  in  some  preceding  verb  or  expression  j especially 
after  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  : 

Pythia  praecepit  ut  Miltiadem  imperatorem  sumerent  4 incepta  pros- 
pera futura,  Phthia  commanded  that  they  should  take  Miltiadm  as  their  com^ 
mander,  (telling  them)  that  their  efforts  would  he  successful.  Nep. 

2.  Ehetorical  Questions. — Questions  which  are  such  only  in  form, 

requiring  no  answer,  are  generally  construed,  according  to  sqnse,  in  the 
Infinitive.  They  are  sometimes  called  Ehetorical  questions,  as  they  are 
often  used  for  Ehetorical  effect  instead  of  assertions : thus  num  possit,  can 
he  ? for  non  potest,  he  can  not ; quid  sit  turpius,  what  is  more  base  ? for 
nihil  est  turpius,  nothing  is  more  base.  y 

Here  belong  many  questions  which  in  the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in 
the  first  or  third  person  : 

Eespondit  num  memoriam  deponere  He  PcfiUmfcould  he  lay 

aside  the  recollection.  Caes.  Here  the  direct  question  would  be : Num 
memoriam  deponere  possim  ? 

0.  Imperative  Clauses  with  the  Infinitive.  See  551.  II.  1. 


531.  Moods  in  Suboedinate  Clauses. — The  Subor- 1 
dinate  clauses  of  the  Direct  discourse,  on  becoming  Indi-  i 
rect,  put  their  finite  verbs  in  the  Subjunctive  : ! ; 

Orabant,  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret  quod  premerentur  (direct : nobis 
auxilium  fer,  quod  premimur).  They  prayed  that  he  would  bring  them  help,  . , 
because  they  were  oppressed.  Cacs.  ^ * 

1.  Infinitive  in  Eelative  Clauses. — It  must  be  remembered  (453),  ij 
that  Eelative  clauses,  though  subordinate  in  form,  sometimes  have  the  force 
of  Principal  clauses.  When  thus  used  in  the  Oratio  Obliqua,  they  may  be  ^ 
construed  with  the  Infinitive  : 


Ad  eum  defertur,  esse  civem  Eomanum  qui  quereretur  : quem  (=  et 
eum)  asservatum  esse.  It  was  reported  to  him  that  there  was  a Homan  citizen 
who  made  a complaint,  and  that  he  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  So 
also  comparisons  : Te  suspicor  iisdeth/  quibus  me  ipsum,  commoveri,  Isu^' 
pect  that  you  are  moved  by  the  same  things  as  I am.  Cic. 


vP  Ol 


i : '' 

MOOlis'  AND  TENSES. 


^ 247 


fV 

' \ 2.  Infinitive  after  certain  Conjunctions. — The  Infinitive  occurs,  es;.' 

^'pecially  in  Livy  and  Tacitus,  even  in  clauses  after  quia^  quumy■q^twm'q'UU1nf 
' and  some  other  conjunctions  : 

V Dicit,  se  moenibus  inclusos  tenSreeos7’^i|UiarRer  agros  vagari.  He  says 
that  he  Tceeps  them  shut  up  within  the  walls,  because  (VU^rwise)  they  would 
wander  through  the  fields,  Liv.  See  also  551.  I.  5 and  6. 

3,  Indicative  in  Parenthetical  Clauses. — Clauses  may  be  ihtij^uced 
parenthetically  in  the  oratio  obliqua  without  strictly  forming  a part 

and  may  accordingly  take  the  Indicative : 

Referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis,  They  report  that  there 
is  a forest  which  is  called  Bacenis,  Caes. 

4.  Indicative  in  Clauses  not  ParIpnthetical.— Sometimes  clauses  not-^' 
parenthetical  take  the  Indicative  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact  staled. 

' This  occurs  most  frequently  in  Relative  clauses  : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vici,  quam  Gallis  concesserat!,  omnes  ^ 

" discessisse,  Ee  was  informed  that  all  had  withdraim  from  thatpaH  of  the  \ 

village  which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls,  Caes.  I 

‘ ^ 532.  Tenses.— Tenses  in  the  Oratio  Ohliqna  generally^  / 

j conform  to  the  ordinary  rules  fo5  Infinitive  and  bubjunc- 
^tive  Tenses  (480,  540), ‘but  the  law  of  Sequence  of  T^ses 
^ admits  of  certai/i  qualifications^  / 

1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  ma/ be  used  even  after  a Historical  tense, 

^ to  impart  a more  lively  effect  to  the'^iarrative  : / 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sibi  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  factutum,  Cae- 
$ar  replied,  tlic^  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  would  makepeace,  Caes. 

2.  In  Goiiiiitional  sentences  of^the-third  form  (510), 

l)(The  condition  retains  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  without  reference 
to  the  tense  of  the  Principal  verb  '^  \ 

V 2)  The  Conclusion  changes  t^  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive 
^Into  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive^h  rus  (or  diis)  esse  or  fuisse : 

Censes  ]p^npeium  laetat^um  fuisse,  si  sciret.  Do  youj'hink  Pompey 
would  have  r^mced,  if  he  had  kndtvn  f Cic.  Clamitabat,^^^i4lle  adesset,  ven- 
\ turos  esse,  Heh^ed  out  that  they  idould  come,  if  he  wefe  present,  Caes. 

A But  the  Regular  Infinitive,  ^stead^f  the  periphrastic  forms,  sometimes  occurs 
la  this  constructiQg*/6specially  ihexprcssions  of  Duty,  etc.  (475.  4). 

^ 8.  In  Conditional  Sentefices  of  the  seco^  ^&rnx450^9),  the  Condition  > 

generally  conforms  to  the\Rule  for  Sequence  of  Tenses  (480),  but  the 
Conclusion  ch^n^^^s  the  Su^^nctive  to  the  Puture  Infinitive : 

Respondit^  si  Aeduis  sa^sfaciaht,  sese  cum  iis  pacem  esse  facturum. 

He  replied  thaitf  they  woulkysatisfy  the  Aeduans,  he  would  makepeace  with 
them,  Caes.  -l4^atos  mittit,  ^ ita  fecisset,  hmlcitiam  futuram.  He  sent 
messengers  sa^fipg  that,  if  he  wouM  do  thus,  there  would  be  f riendship,  Caes. 


248 


ORATIO  OBLIQUA.  IMPERATIVE. 


Here  mittit  is  the  Historical  Present.  See  467.  III. 

4.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a Subordinate  clause  of  the  Direct  discourse 
is  changed  in  the  Indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a Principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  a Historical  tense : 

Agunt  ut  dimicent ; ibi  imperium  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  They  ar- 
range that  they  shall  fight ; that  the  sovereignty  shall  he  on  the  side  which 
shall  win  the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparebat 
regnaturum,  qui  vicisset.  It  was  evident  that  he  would  he  Icing  who  should 
conquer.  Liv. 

533.  Pronouns,  Adverbs,  etc. — Pronouns  and  ad- 
verbs, as  also  the  persons  of  the  verbs,  are  often  changed 
in  passing  from  the  Divect  discourse  to  the  Indifect : 

Gloriatus  est  annulum  se  sua  manu  confecisse  {direct  : anniilum  ego 
mea  manu  confeci),  He  boasted  that  he  had  made  the  ring  with  his  own 
hand.  Cic. 

1.  Pronouns  of  first  and  second  persons  are  often  changed  to  the 
third.  Thus  above  ego  in  the  direct  discourse  becomes  sCy  and  mea  becomes 
8ua.  In  the  same  way  hie  and  iste  are  often  changed  to  ille. 

2.  Adverbs  meaning  here  or  now  are  often  changed  to  those  meaning 
there  or  then  / nunc  to  turn  / hie  to  illic. 

3.  In  the  use  of  pronouns  observe 

1)  That  references  to  the  Speaker  whose  words  are  reported  are  made, 
if  of  the  1st  Pers.  by  egOy  meuSy  nosteVy  etc.,  if  of  the  2d  Pers.  by  tUy  tuuSy 
etc.,  and  if  of  the  3d  Pers.  by  suiy  suuSy  i^psCy  etc.,  though  sometimes  by 
liiCy  iSy  ille. 

2)  That  references  to  the  Reporter,  or  Author,  are  made  by  ^Oy 
meuSy  etc. 

3)  That  references  to  the  Person  Addressed  by  the  reporter  are  made 
by  tUy  tuuSy  etc. 

Ariovistus  respondit  nos  esse  iniquos  qui  se  interpellaremus  {direct  : 
vos  estis  iniqui  qui  me,  etc.),  Ariovistus  replied  that  we  were  unjust  who 
interrupted  him.  Caes. 

Here  nos  refers  to  the  Reporter^  Caesar,  we  Romans.  Se  refers  to  the  SpeakeCy 
Ariovistus.  In  the  second  example  under  528,  ie  refers  to  the  Person  Addressed. 


SECTION  YII. 

IMPERA  TJ  VE. 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Imperative. 

534.  The  Imperative  has  but  two  Tenses  : 

I.  The  Present  has  only  the  Second  person,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  English  Imperative  : 

Justitiam  colo.  Practise  justice . Cic.  Perge,  Catilina,  (7o,  Cat  iline.  Cic. 


IMPERATIVE. 


249 


II.  The  Future  has  the  Second  and  Third  persons,  and 
corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  English  Future 
with  shall,  or  to  the  Imperative  let : 

li  consules  appellantor,  They  shall  he  called  consuls^  or  let  them  he 
called  consuls.  Cic.  Quod  dixero,  facitote,  leou  shall  do  what  I say  (shall 
have  said).  Ter. 

1.  PuTURE  FOR  Present. — The  Future  Imperative  is  sometimes  used 
where  we  should  expect  the  Present : 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  cSlebratSte  illos  dies,  Since  a ihanlcs* 
giving  has  been  decreed^  celebrate  those  days,  Cic. 

This  is  particularly  common  in  certain  verbs : thus  scio  has  only  the  forms  of 
the  Future  in  common  use. 

2.  Present  for  Future. — The  Imperative  Present  is  often  used  in  poetry, 
and  sometimes  in  prose,  of  an  action  which  belongs  entirely  to  the  future  : 

Ubi  aciem  videris,  tum  ordines  dissipa,  W hen  you  shall  see  the  line  of 
battle^  then  scatter  the  ranks.  Liv. 


II.  Use  of  the  Imperative. 

EULE  XLVIII.— Imperative. 

535.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhor- 
tations, and  entreaties : 

Justitiam  cole.  Practise  justice.  Cic.  Tu  ne  cede  malls,  Do  not  yield 
to  misfortunes.  Virg.  Si  quid  in  te  peccavi,  ignosce.  If  I have  sinned 
against  you.,  pardon  me.  Cic. 

1.  Circumlocutions. — Instead  of  the  simple  Imperative,  several  ciicum- 
locutions  are  common : 

1)  Cura  utyfac  utyfac,  each  with  the  Subjunctive  : 

Cura  ut  venias.  See  that  you  come.  Cic.  See  489. 

2)  Fac  ne,  cave  ne,  cave,  with  the  Subjunctive  : 

Cave  facias.  Beware  of  doing  it,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

S)  Noli,  nollte,  with  the  Infinitive: 

Noli  imitari,  do  not  imitate.  Cic.  See  538.  2. 

2.  Imperative  Clause  for  Condition.— An  Imperative  clause  may  be 
used  instead  of  a Conditional  clause : 

Lacesse;  jam  videbis  furentem.  Provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him^, 
you  will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic. 

8.  Imperative  Supplied.— The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  variously 
supplied : 

1)  By  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  (487)  : 

Sint  beati,  Let  them  be  happy.  Cic.  Impii  ne  audeant,  Let  not  the  im- 
vious  dare.  Cic 


250 


IMPERATIVE.  INFINITIVE. 


2)  By  the  Indicative  Future  : 

Quod  optimum  videbitur,  facies,  You  will  do  (for  Imper.  do)  wTiat  shall 
seem  best.  Cic. 

536.  The  Imperative  Present,  like  the  English  Impera- 
tive, is  used  in  commands,  exhortations,  and  entreaties. 
See  examples  under  the  Rule. 

537.  The  Imperative  Future  is  used,.^ 

I.  In  commands  involving  future  rather  than  present 
action : 

Rem  penditote,  You  shall  consider  the  subject.  Cic.  Cras  petito ; dabi- 
tur, Ask  to-morrow  ; it  shall  he  granted.  Plaut. 

II.  In  laws,  orders,  precepts,  etc. : 

Consules  nemini  parento.  The  consuls  shall  he  subject  to  no  one.  Cic. 
Salus  populi  suprema  lex  esto.  The  safety  of  the  people  shall  he  the  supreme 
law.  Cic. 

538.  Imperative  in  Prohibitions. — In  prohibitions 
or  negative  commands, 

1.  The  negative  rarely  accompanies  the  Imper- 
ative, and  if  a connective  is  required,  neve.^  or  neu^  is  gen- 
erali used,  rarely  neque  : 

Tu  ne  cede  malis,  Bo  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Yirg.  Hominem  mor- 
tuum in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  neve  urito.  Thou  shall  not  bury  or  burn  a dead 
body  in  the  city.  Cic. 

2.  Instead  of  7ie  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best 
prose  writers  generally  use  noli  and  nollte  with  the  Infini- 
tive : 

Kblite  putare  {for  ne  putate),  do  not  think  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 


SEOTIOX  YIII. 

INFINITIVE. 

539.  The  treatment  of  the  Latin  Infinitive  embraces 
four  topics : 

I.  The  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

II.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive.^  ^ 

III.  The  Predicate  after  the  Infinitive. 

IV.  The  Construction  of  the  Infinitive. 


INFINITIVE. 


251 


I.  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

540.  The  Infinitive  has  three  tenses,  Present^  Perfect, 
and  Future.  They  express  however  not  absolute,  but  rel- 
ative time,  denoting  respectively  Present,  Past,  or  Future 
time,  relatively  to  the  Principal  verb. 

1.  Peculiarities.— These  tenses  present  the  leading  peculiarities  specified  under 
these  tenses  in  the  Indicative.  See  46T.  2. 

541.  The  Peesent  Infinitive  represents  the  action 
as  taking  place  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb : 

Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I desire  to  he  mild.  Cic.  Maluit  se  diiigi 
quam  metui,  Me  'preferred  to  he  loved  rather  than  feared.  Nep. 

1.  Keal  Time.— Hence  the  real  time  denoted  by  the  Present  Infinitive  is  the 
time  of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends. 

2.  Present  fob  Future.— The  Present  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Future  and 
sometimes  has  little  or  no  reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dare  dixit,  He  said  he  would  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter. 

3.  Present  with  Debeo,  Possum,  etc.— After  the  past  tenses  of  deheo^  oportet., 
possum^  and  the  like,  the  Present  Infinitive  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us 
to  expect  the  Perfect ; sometimes  also  after  memlni^  and  the  like : 

Debuit  officiosior  esse,  lie  ought  to  have  been  more  attentive.  Cic.  Id  potuit 
facere,  He  might  have  done  this.  Cic. 

542.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as 
completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb  : 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse.  They  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy. 
Cic.  Conscius  mihi  eram,  nihil  a me  commissum  esse,  I was  conscious  to 
myself  that  no  offence  had  been  committed  hy  me.  Cic. 

1.  Real  Time. — Hence  the  real  time  denoted  by  the  Perfect  Infinitive^® 

of  the  Perfect  tense,  if  dependent  upon  the  Present,  and  that  of  the  Pluperfect,  if  de- 
pendent upon  a Historical  tense,  as  in  the  examples. 

2.  Perfect  for  Present. — In  the  poets  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  ' 
for  the  Present,  rarely  in  prose  : 

Tetigisse  timent  poetam.  They  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet.  Hor. 

3.  Passive  Infinitive. — The  Passive  Infinitive  with  esse  sometimes  denotes 
the  result  of  the  action  : victus  esse.,  to  have  been  vanquished,  and  so,  to  be  a van- 
quished man.  Fuisse  for  esse  emphasizes  the  completeness  of  the  action ; victus 
fuisse.,  to  have  been  vanquished.  See  575. 1. 

543.  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  the  action 
as  about  to  take  place  in  time  subsequent  to  that  of  the 
principal  verb  : 

Brutum  visum  iri  a me  piito,  I thinh  Brutus  will  he  seen  hy  me.  Cic. 
Oraculum  datum  erat  victrices  Athenas  fore.  An  oracle  had  been  given,  that 
Athens  would  he  victorious.  Cic. 

Hence  after  a Principal  tense  the  real  time  of  the  Future  Infinitive  is  Future,  but 
after  a Historical  tense  the  real  time  can  be  determined  only  by  the  context. 

12 


252 


INFINITIVE. 


544.  Circumlocution  for  Future  Infinitive. — In- 
stead of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  circumlocution 
futurum  esse  ut^  or  fore  ut^  with  the  Subjunctive, — ^Present 
after  a Principal  tense,  and  Imperfect  after  a Historical 
tense, — is  frequently  used : 

Spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis,  I hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope 
it  will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  spgraverat  Han- 
nibal, fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  that  they  would  revolt 
to  him,  Liv.  See  556.  II.  1. 

1.  Circumlocution  necessary. ease  ut,  or  fore  ut,  with  the  Subjunc- 
tive, for  the  Future  Infinitive,  is  common  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  Participle  in  rus. 

2.  Fore  ut  with  Perfect  Subjunctive. — Sometimes  fore  ut  with  the  Subjunc- 
tive, Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with  the  force  of  a Future  Perfect ; and  in  Passive 
and  Deponent  verbs, /dre  with  the  Perfect  Participle  may  be  used  with  the  same 
force : 

EIco  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  I say  that  I shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

3.  Futurum  fuisse  ut  with  Subjunctive.— ut  with  the  Sub- 
junctive may  be  used  in  the  conclusion  of  a conditional  sentence  of  the  third  form 
when  made  dependent : 

Nisi  nuntii  essent  allati,  existimabant  futurum  fuisse,  ut  oppidum  amitteretur. 
They  thought  that  the  town  would  have  been  lost,  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought, 
Caes.  See  533.  2.  , 


II.  Subject  of  Infinitive. 

RULE  XLIX.-Subject. 

545.  The  Subject  of  an  Infiniti-e  is  put  in  the  Ac- 
cusative : 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  Vfe  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Platonem 
Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic. 

1.  Historical  Infinitive.^Iu  lively  description  the  Infinitive  is  some- 
times used  for  the  Indicative  Imperfect.  It  is  then  called  the  Historical  In- 
finitive, and,  like  a finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nominative: 

Hostes  gaesa  conjicere.  The  enemy  hurled  their  javelins,  Caes. 

The  Historical  Infinitive  may  often  be  explained  by  supplying  coepit  or  coeph 
runt;  but  in  most  instances  it  is  better  to  treat  it  simply  as  an  idiom  of  the  language. 

2.  Subject  Omitted. — The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  may  be  omitted  : 

1)  When  it  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  or  may  be  readily  supplied  from  the  context : 

Magna  negotia  volunt  agere.  They  wish  to  accomplish  great  undertakings. 
Cic.  Peccare  licet  nemini,  It  is  not  lawful  for  any  one  to  sin.  Cic. 


INFINITIVE. 


253 


2)  When  it  is  indefinite  or  general : 

Dliigi  jucundum  est,  It  is ‘pleasant  to  he  loved.  Cic. 

3.  Infinitive  Omitted. — Esse  and  fuisse  are  often  omitted  in  the 
compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive  and  with  predicate  adjectives,  other  in- 
finitives less  frequently  (551.  5) : 

Audivi  sdlitum  Fabricium,  I have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic. 
Speramus  nobis  profuturos.  We  hope  to  benefit  'you.  Cic. 


III.  Predicate  after  Infinitive. 


540.  A Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  after  an  Infinitive 
regularly  agrees  with  the  Subject,  expressed  or  understood 
1(362.3): 

\ Ego  me  Phidiam  esse  mallem,  I sJwuld prefer  to  he  Phidiae.  Cic.  Tradp 
Htum  est,  H6m6rum  caecum  fuisse,  It  has  been  handed  down  oy  tradition, 
that  Homer  was  blind.  Cic.  Jiigurtha  omnibus  carus  esse  {hUtoriead  infini- 
tive)y  Jugurtha  was  dear  to  all*  Sail. 

547.  A Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective,  after  an  Infinitive 
whose  Subject  is  omitted,  is  often  attracted  into  the  Nom* 
inative  or  Dative : 

1.  It  is  attracted  into  the  ISTorainative  to  agree  with  the  Sub- 
ject  of  the  principal  verb,  when  the  latter  is  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the^ omitted  Subject : 

Nolo  esse  laudator,  I am  unwilling  to  he  an  eulogist.  Cic.  Beatus  esse 
eine  virtute  nemo  potest,  No  one  caft  be  happy  without  virtue.  Cic. 

1.  This  occurs  most  frequently  (1)  after  verbs  of  duty,  ability,  courage, 
custom,  desire,  beginning,  continuing,  ending,  and  the  like — debeo,  possum, 
audeo,  soleo,  ciipio,  volo,  malo,  nolo,  incipio,  pergo,  desino,  etc.,  and  (2) 
after  various  Passive  verbs  of  saying,  thinking , finding , seeming,  and  the 
like— dicor,  trSdor,feror— credor,  existimor,  putor— reperior— videor,  etc.: 


Quis  scientior  esse  debuit.  Who  ought  to  have  been  more  learned?  Cic. 
Parens  dici  potest.  He  can  be  called  a parent.  Cic.  Stoicus  esse  voluit.  He 
wished  to  be  a Stoic.  Cic.  Desinant  esse  timidi.  Let  them  cease  to  be  timid. 

‘ Cic.  Inventor  esse  dicitur.  He  is  said  to  be  the  inventor.  Cic.  Prudens 
putabatur.  He  was  thought  to  he  prudent.  Cic. 

5 Participles  in  the  compound  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  are  also  attracted : 

Pollicitus  esse  dicitur.  He  is  said  to  have  promised.  Cic. 

^ II.  The  Predicate  Nonn  or  Adjective  is  sometimes  attracted  in- 
,Ato  the  Dative  to  agree  with  a Dative  in  the  principal  clause,  when 
^the  latter  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  omitted  Subject : 

i.r  Patricio  tribuno  plebis  fieri  non  licebat.  It  'was  not  lawful  for  a pair f 
man  to  be  made  tribune  of  the  peo'ple.  Cic.  Mihi  negligenti  esse  non  licuit, 
! ^ It  was  ivot  permitted  me  to  he  negligent.  Cic. 


254 


INFINITIVE. 


1.  This  is  rare,  but  is  the  regular  construction  after  I'icet.,  and  sometimes  occurs 
after  n&cesse  est,  when  used  after  licet,  and  occasionally  in  other  connections  : 

Illis  timidis  licet  esse,  nobis  necesse  est  fortibus  viris  esse,  It  is  permitted  them 
to  he  timid,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  he  hr  are  men.  Liv.  But, 

2.  Even  with  Licet  the  attraction  does  not  always  take  place : 

Ei  consulem  fieri  licet,  It  is  lawful  for  him  to  he  made  consul.  Caes. 

IV.  Construction  of  the  Infinitive. 

548.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a Subject,  has  in 
general  the  construction  of  a Noun  in  the  Nominative  or 
Accusative,  and  is  used, 

I.  As  a Nominative — Subject  of  a Verb. 

II.  As  an  Accusative — Object  of  a Verb. 

III.  In  Special  Constructions. 

I,  Infinitive  as  Subject. 

549.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a Subject,  is  often 
used  as  a Nominative,  and  is  thus  made  the  Subject  of  a 
sentence,  according  to  Rule  III. : 

With  Subject. — Facinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum,  That  a Roman 
citizen  should  he  hound  is  a crime.  Certum  est  liberos  amari,  It  is  cer- 

tain that  children  are  loved.  Quint.  Legem  brevem  esse  oportet,  It  is  neces- 
sary that  a law  he  brief . Sen. 

Without  Subject.— Ars  est  difficilis  rem  publicam  regere.  To  rule  a 
state  is  a difficult  art.  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est.  It  U pleasant  to  he  held 
dear.  Cic.  Haec  scire  jiivat.  To  Jcnow  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen. 
Peccare  licet  nemini,  To  sin  is  not  lawful  for  any  one.  Cic. 

1.  Infinitive  as  Subject.— When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  Predi- 
cate is  either  (1)  a Noun  or  Adjective  with  Rtum,  or  (2)  an  Impersonal  verb 
or  a verb  used  Impersonally.  See  the  examples  above.  . 

1)  Tempus  = tempestivum  is  thus  used  with  the  Infinitive : 

Tempus  est  dicere.  It  is  time  to  speaJc.  Cic. 

2.  Infinitive  as  Subject  of  an  Infinitive. — The  Infinitive  maybe  the 
subject  of  anotheV  Infinitive  ; 

Intelligi  necesse  est  esse  deos.  It  must  he  understood  that  there  are  gods, 
Cic.  Esse  deos  is  the  subject  of  intelligi,  and  intelligi  esse  deos  necesse  est. 

3.  Infinitive  with  Demonstrative.— The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a 

Demonstrative-as  an  attributive  in  agreement  with  it : ^ ^ ^ j 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  philosophari,  T his philosopJdzing  (thisfio  i^hi-  ] 

losophize)  displeases  some  persons.  Cic.  Vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nfibis.  To 

live  is  itself  ignoble  for  us.  Cic.  . . u • 

4.  Personal  construction  for  Impersonal. — With  Passive  verbs,  in- 
stead of  the  Infinitive  with  a subject  accusative,  a Personal  construction  is 


INFINITIVE. 


255 


common,  b j which  the  Subject  Accusative  becomes  the  Subject  Nominative 
of  the  leading  verb  : 

Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur  (for  Aristidem  justissimum  f uisse 
traditur)^  Aristides  is  said  io  have  been  most  just,  Cic. 

1)  The  Personal  Construction  is  used,  (1)  regularly  with  videor ^ jubeor, 
vetor,  and  the  Simple  Tenses  of  many  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  and  the 
like — dicor,  trddor,  feror,  perhibeor,  putor,  existimor,  etc.,  also  with  coeptus 
sum  and  desitus  sum  with  a Passive  Infinitive,  and  (2)  sometimes  with  other 
verbs  of  saying,  showing,  perceiving , finding,  and  the  like. 

Solem  e mundo  tollere  videntur.  They  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  the 
world.  Cic.  Platonem  audivisse  dicitur,  Ile  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato,  Cic. 
Dii  beati  esse  intelliguntur.  The  gods  are  understood  to  be  happy.  Cic. 

2)  In  successive  clauses  the  Personal  construction  is  often  followed  by 
the  Impersonal. 

3)  Videor  with  or  without  a Dative  often  means  to  fancy,  think: 
mihi  videor  or  videor,  I fancy ; ut  videmur,  as  we  fancy. 

II,  Infinitive  as  Object, 

550.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a Subject,  is  often 
used  as  an  Accusative,  and  is  thus  made  the  object  ot  a 
verb,  according  to  Rule  V. : 

Te  dicunt  esse  sapientem,  They  say  that  you^  are  wise.  Cic._  Haec 
vitare  cupimus,  We  desire  to  avoid  ijiese  things.  Cic.  Manere  decrevit^ 
Ile  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

551.  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative. — This  is 
used  as  object  with  a great  variety  of  verbs.  Thus, 

I.  With  Verbs  of  Perceiving  and  Declaring, — Verba 
Sentiendi  et  Declarandi. 

II.  With  Verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring. 

III.  With  Verbs  of  Emotion  and  Feeling. 

I.  With  Verbs  of  Perceiving  and  Declaring. — Sentimus  calere 
ignem,  We  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Mihi  narravit  te  sollicitum  esse, 
He  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.  Scripserunt  Themistoclem  in  Asiam 
transisse,  They  wrote  that  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to  Asia.  Nep. 

1.  Verba  Sentiendi. — Verbs  of  Perceiving  include  those  which  involve 
(1)  the  exercise  of  the  senses : audio,  video,  sentio,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise 
of  the  mind : thinking,  believing,  knowing,  cogito,  puto,  existimo,  credo, 
spero, — intelligo,  scio,  etc. 

2.  Verba  Verbs  of  Declaring  are  such  as  state  or  commu- 

nicate facts  or  thoughts : dico,  narro,  nuntio,  doceo,  ostendo,  promitto,  etc. 

3.  Expressions  with  the  Force  of  Verbs. — The  Infinitive  with  a sub- 
ject may  be  used  with  expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  de- 
claring. Thus : 


/ 


250 


INFINITIVE. 


With  fdma  fert^  report  says,  testis  sum,  I am  a witness  = I testify;  eonsciui 
mihi  sum,  I am  conscious,  I know: 

Nullam  mihi  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis.  You  are  a witnesf  (can  testify) 
that  no  grateful  return  has  teen  made  to  me.  Cic. 

4.  Participle  for  Infinitive. — Verbs  of  Perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  Present  Participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
seen,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a given  action  : 

Catonem  vidi  in  bibliotheca  sedentem,  I saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  library, 

Cic. 

5.  Subjects  Compared. — When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate 
are  compared  by  means  of  quam,  idem — qui,  etc. ; if  the  Accusative  with  the 
Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first  clause,  the  Accusative  with  its  Infinitive  omitted 
may  follow  in  the  second  : 

Platonem  ferunt  idem  sensisse,  quod  Pythagoram,  They  say  that  Plato 
held  the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras.  Cic. 

6.  Predicates  Compared. — When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared  and  the  Infinitive  with  a Subject  is  used  in  the  first  clause,  the 
Infinitive  with  its  subject  omitted  often  follows  in  the  second  : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  Do  you 
thinh  Antony  spohe  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted  f Cic. 

But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

Audeo  dicere  ipsos  potius  cultores  agrorum  fore  quam  ut  coli  prohibeant,  / 
say  that  they  will  themselves  become  tillers  of  the  fields  rather  than  prevent  them 
from  being  tilled.  Liv. 

II.  With  Verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring. — The  Infinitive  with 
Subject  Accusative  is  also  used  with  verbs  of  Wishing  and  Desiring : 

Te  tua  frui  virtute  cupimus,  We  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  vir' 
tue.  Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescindi,  He  orders  the  bridge  to  he  broken  down 
(that  the  bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necari  vStuit, 
The  law  forbade  that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Liv. 

1.  Verbs  op  Wishing. — The  Infinitive  is  thus  used  not  only  with  verbs 
which  directly  express  a wish,  cupio,  volo,  nolo,  mdlo,  etc.,  but  also  with 
many  which  involve  a wish  or  command:  pdtior,  sino,  to  permit;  impero, 
jubeo,  to  command ; prohibeo,  veto,  to  forbid.  See  also  558.  II. 

2.  Subjunctive  for  Infinitive. — Several  verbs  involving  a wish  or 
command  admit  the  Subjunctive  : 

1)  Opto.  See  492.  3, 

2)  Volo,  malo,  nolo,  impero,  and  jiibeo  admit  the  Subjunctive,  generally  with 
ut  or  ne : 

Yolout  respondeas,  I wish  you  would  reply.  Cic.  Mulo  to  hostis  metuat,  / 
prefer  that  the  enemy  should  fear  you.  Cic. 

8)  Concedo,  permitto,  raxe\j  pdtior  and  sino,  admit  the  Subjunctive  with  ut: 

Concedo  ut  haec  apta  sint,  I admit  that  these  things  are  suitable.  Cic. 

III.  With  Verbs  of  Emotion  or  Feeling. — The  Infinitive  with  Sub* 
ject  Accusative  is  also  used  with  verbs  of  Emotion  or  E'eeling : 


INFINITIVE. 


257 


Gaudeo,  te  mihi  suadere,  / rejoice  that  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Miramur, 
te  laetari.  We  worider  that  you  rejoice.  Cic. 

Verbs  of  emotion  are  gaudeo,  doleo,  miror,  queror,  aoi  the  like;  also  aegre 
fero,  grdvUerfero,  etc. 

552.  Iotinitiye  without  Subject  Accusative*  Tais 
is  used  as  Object  with  many  verbs: 


VineSre  scis,  You  know  how  to  conquer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liy. 
Creduli  esse  coeperunt,  They  began  to  he  credulous,  Cic.  Haec  vitare  cu- 
pimus, We  desire  to  avoid  these  things,  Cic.  Solent  cogitare, 
accustomed  to  think,  Cic.  Nemo  mortem  effugere  potest,  No  one  is  able  to 
escape  death,  Cic. 


1.  Verbs  with  the  Infinitive.— The  Infinitive  may  depend  upon  verbs 
signifying  to  dare,  desire,  determine— begin,  continue,  end— know,  learn,  neg- 
lect—owe,  promisi,  etc.,  also  to  be  able,  be  accustomed,  be  wont,  etc. 

2.  Infinitive  as  a Second  Object.— With  a few  verbs— (foew,  cogo,  as- 
suefacio, arguo,  etc.— the  Infinitive  is  used  in  connection  with  a direct  object; 

see  374. 4:  . . 

Te  sapere  ddeet,  He  teaches  you  to  be  wise,  Cic.  Natidiies  parere  assue- 
fecit, He  accustomed  the  nations  to  obey,  Cic. 


In  the  Passive  these  verbs  of  course  retain  the  Infinitive: 

Num  sum  Graece  loqui  ddeendus,  Must  1 be  taught  to  speak  Greek  ? Cic. 


3.  Infinitive  after  Adjectives.— By  a construction  according  to  sense, 
the  Infinitive  is  used  after  adjectives  in  the  sense  of  participles  or  verbs  with 
the  Infinitive : 

Est  paratus  {vult)  audire,  He  is  prepared  to  hear  (is  willing  to  hear).  Cic 

Pelides  cedere  nescius  (=  nesciens),  Pelides  not  knowing  how  to  yield, 
Hor.  Avidi  committere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  battle,  Ovid. 

This  construction  is  rare  in  good  prose,  but  common  in  poetry. 

4.  Infinitive  with  Prepositions. — The  Infinitive  regarded  as  a noun  in 
the  accusative,  sometimes  depends  upon  a preposition  . 

Multum  interest  interdare  et  accipere,  There  is  a great  difference  between 
giving  and  receiving.  Sen. 


IIL  Infinitive  in  Special  Constructions. 

553.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a Subject,  is  gen- 
erally used  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  a verb,  but  some- 
times occurs  in  other  relations.  It  is  thus  used, 

I.  As  Predicate  ; see  362  : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis : sibi  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam,  The  close^  of  his 
oration  was  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these,  Caes.  Vivere  est  cogitare, 
To  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

Here  sihi—dmlcUiam  is  used  substantively,  and  is  the  Predicate  Nominative 
TtiiQvfuit,  according  to  Rule  I.  Cbgxtdre  is  in  the  same  conatmcaou  after  est. 


258 


INFINITIVE. 


II.  As  Appositive  ; see  363  : 

Oraculum  datum  erat  victrices  Athenas  fore,  The  oracle  that  Athens 
would  be  mctorious  had  been  given.  Cic.  Iliud  soleo  mirari  non  me  accipere 
tuas  litteras,  / am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this^  that  I do  not  receive  your 
letter»  Cic. 

1.  With  Subject.— In  this  construction  the  Infinitive  takes  a subject  accusative, 
as  in  the  examples. 

2.  Explanation.— In  the  examples,  the  clause  victrices  Athenas  fore  is  in  ap- 
position with  oraculum.,  and  the  clause  non  me  accipere  tuas  liUeraSj  in  apposition 
with  illud» 

III.  In  Exclamations ; see  381 : 

Te  sic  vexari,  that  you  should  be  thus  troubled!  Cic.  Mene  incepto  de- 
sistere victam,  that  1 vanquished  should  abandon  my  undertaking  ! Virg. 

1.  With  Subject.— In  this  construction  the  Infinitive  takes  a Subject,  as  in  the 
examples. 

2.  Explanation. — This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  it  will  be  observed,  to  the 
use  of  Accusative  and  Nominative  in  exclamations  (381,  381.  3).  It  may  often  be  ex- 
plained as  an  Accus.  by  supplying  some  verb,  as  doleo^  etc.,  or  as  a Nom.  by  supplying 
credendum  est  or  credAblle  est.  Thus  the  first  example  becomes : I grieve  (doleo) 
that  you.,  etc.,  and  the  second  becomes : Is  it  to  be  supposed  (erodendum  est)  that  1 
vanquished.,  etc. 

3.  Impassioned  Questions. — This  construction  is  most  frequent  in  impassioned 
questions,  as  in  the  second  example. 

IV.  As  Ablative  Absolute.  See  431.  4. 

V.  To  express  Purpose : 

Pecus  egit  altos  visere  montes,  He  drove  his  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Ilor.  Non  populare  penates  venimus.  We  have  not  come  to  lay  wasU 
your  homes.  Virg. 

This  construction  is  confined  to  poetry. 

VI.  Poetic  Infinitive  for  Gerund.  See  563.  6. 


SECTIO^T  IX. 

SUBJECT  AND  OBJECT  CLAUSES. 

554.  Subject  and  Object  Clauses,  in  which,  as  we  have 
just  seen  (549  and  550),  the  Infinitive  is  so  freely  used, 
assume  four  distinct  forms : 

I.  Indikect  Questions. — These  represent  the  Subject 
or  Object  as  Interrogative  in  character: 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  It  is  asked  why  they  disagree,  Cic.  Quid 
agendum  sit,  nescio,  1 do  not  know  what  ought  to  be  done»  Cic.  See  625. 


SUBJECT  AND  OBJECT  CLAUSES 


259 


II.  Infinitive  Clauses. — -Thesa  have  simply  the  force 
of  Nouns,  merely  supplying  the  place  of  the  Nominative, 
or  the  Accusative : 

AntScellSre  contigit,  It  was  his  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened). 
Cic.  Magna  n6gotia  voluit  agere,  He  wished  to  achieve  great  undertakings, 
Cic.  See  549,  550. 

III.  Subjunctive  Clauses. — These  clauses  introduced 
by  ne,  etc.,  are  only  occasionally  used  as  subject  or  ob- 
ject, and  even  then  involve  Purpose  or  Result : 

Contigit  nt  patriam  vindicaret,  It  was  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  coun- 
try. Nep.  Volo  ut  mihi  respondeas,  I wish  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  See 
492,  495. 

Here  ut — vindicaret  is  at  once  subject  and  result : it  was  bis  good  fortune  to  save 
his  country,  or  his  good  fortune  was  such  that  he  saved  his  country.  In  the  second 
example,  ut—respondeas  expresses  not  only  the  object  desired,  but  also  the  purpose 
of  the  desiae. 

IV.  Clauses  with  Quod.— These  again  are  only  occa- 
sionally used  as  subject  or  object,  and  even  then  either  give 
prominence  to  the  fact  stated,  or  present  it  as  a Ground  or 
Reason : 

BenSficium  est  quod  necesse  est  mori,  It  is  a Messing  that  it  is  necessary 
to  die.  Sen.  Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  I rejoice  that  (because)  I have  in* 
terrupted  you.  Cic.  See  520. 

Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  announce 
the  subject  of  remark : 

Quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  As  to  the.  fact  that  you  think  I 
emulate  Agamemnon.,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 


I.  Fobms  of  Subject  Clauses. 

555.  Interrogative. — Subject  clauses  which  are  in- 
terrogative in  character,  of  course  take  the  form  of  indirect 
questions.  See  525.  2 and  554.  I. 

656.  Not  Interrogative. — Subject  clauses  which  are 
not  interrogative,  with  some  predicates  take  the  form  of 
Infinitive  clauses,  or  clauses  with  quod ; while  with  other 
predicates  they  take  the  form  of  Subjunctive  clauses  with 
ut.^  ne^  etc.  Thus, 

I.  With  most  impersonal  verbs  and  with  predicates  consisting 
of  est  with  a or  Adjective,  the  Subject  may  be  supxdied  (1) 

by  the  Infinitive  with  or  without  a Subject  Accusative,  or,  (2)  if 


260 


SUBJECT  AND  OBJECT  CLAUSES. 


the  fact  is  to  he  made  prominent  or  adduced  as  a reason,  bj  a 
clause  with  quod : 

Me  poenitet  vixisse,  I regret  that  I have  lived,  Cic.  Quod  te  ofifendi  mv» 
poenitet,  I regret  that  (or  because)  I have  offended  you,  Cic. 

1.  Substantive  Predicates  with  Subjunctive. — Mos  est,  moris  est,  consue- 
tiido  est,  consuetudinis  est,  It  is  a custom,,  etc.,  admit  the  Subjunctive  for  the  Infin- 
itive : 

Mos  est  hbminum  ut  nolint.  It  is  a custom  of  men  that  they  are  not  willing, 

Cic. 

2.  Adjective  Predicates  with  Subjunctive.— Eeliquum  est,  proxTmum  est, 
extremum  est — verum  est,  verisimile  est,  falsum  est — gloriosum  est,  mirum  est,  opti- 
mum est,  etc.,  admit  the  Subjunctive  for  the  Infinitive: 

Eeliquum  est  ut  certemus,  it  remains  that  we  contend.  Cic.  Verum  est  ut 
bonos  diligant.  It  is  true  that  they  love  the  good,  Cic. 

II.  With  Impersonal  verbs  signifying  to  happen — accidit,  con- 
tingit, evenit,  fit— ut  non.,  with  the  Subjunctive,  i&  generally 
used  (495.  2) : 

Thrasybulo  contigit,  ut  patriam  vindicaret.  It  was  the  good  fortune  of 
Thrasybulus  (happened  to  him)  to  deliver  his  country,  Nep. 

1.  Here  belong  accedit  ut,  est  ut^fMhrum  esse  ut,  or  fore  ut.  See  544. 

2.  Clauses  with  quod  also  occur  with  verbs  of  happening. 

III.  With  Impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  folloics.,  remains^  is 
distant,  and  the  like,  the  Subjunctive  clause  with  ut  is  generally 
used  : 

Relinquitur,  ut  quiescamus,  It  remains  that  we  should  submit-  Cic, 
See  495.  2. 

lY.  Subjunctive  clause  standing  alone.  See  495.  2.  2). 

II.  Forms  of  Object  Clauses. 

557.  Interrogative. — Object  clauses  which  are  inter- 
rogative in  character,  of  course,  take  the  form  of  indirect 
questions.  See  554.  1. 

558.  "Not  Interrogative. — Object  clauses  w^hich  are 
not  interrogative  in  character,  supplying  the  place  of  direct 
objects  after  transitive  verbs,  sometimes  take  the  form  of 
Infinitive  clauses,  sometimes  of  Subjunctive  clauses,  and 
sometimes  of  clauses  with  quod.  Thus, 

I.  Verbs  of  declaeino  take, 

1.  Eegularly  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative.  See 

551.  I.  , . ^ 

2.  But  the  Subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne,  when  they  involve  ^ 
fommand : 


i 


OBJECT  CLAUSES. 


261 


DSlabellae  dixit,  ut  ad  me  scrIbSret  ut  in  Italiam  venirem,  He  told  Dola- 
bella to  write  to  me  to  come  into  Italy,  Cic.  See  492.  2. 

II.  Verbs  of  determining,  stdtuo,,  constituo,,  decerno,,  and  the 
I'ke  take 

1.  Generally  the  Infinitive,  when  the  subject  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  principal  verb,  rarely  the  Subjunctive: 

Manere  decrevit,  He  determined  to  remain,  Nep.  Statuerunt,  ut  libertS 
tern  defenderent,  They  determined  to  defend  liberty,  Cic.  See  551.  II. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  with  ut  or  ne  (expressed  or  understood), 
when  a new  subject  is  introduced : 

Constituerat,  ut  tribunus  quereretur,  He  had  arranged  that  the  tribune 
should  enter  the  complaint.  Sail.  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules, 
The  senate  decreed  that  the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.  See  492.  3. 

Stdtuo,  decerno,  etc.,  when  they  mean  to  think,  deem,  suppose,  etc.,  become 
verba  sentiendi  (551. 1. 1),  and  of  course  take  the  infinitive : 

Laudem  sapientiae  statuo  esse  maximam,  I deem  it  to  be  the  highest  praise  of 
wisdom.  Cic. 

III.  Verbs  of  striving,  endeavoring,  take  the  Subjunctive 
with  ut  or  ne.  See  492.  1.  But  contendo,,  nitor,,  studeo,,  and  tento,, 
generally  take  the  Infinitive  when  the  subject  is  the  same ; 

Locum  oppugnare  contendit.  He  proceeds  to  storm  the  city.  Caes.  Ten- 
tabo  de  hoc  dic6re,  I will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint.  See  552. 

IV.  Verbs  of  causing,  making,  accomplishing,  take  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut,,  ne,,  ut  non.  See  492,  495. 

1.  Examples.— Facio,  eflficio,  perficio— adipiscor,  impetro— assequor, 
consequor,  and  sometimes  fero,  are  examples  of  verbs  of  this  class. 

2.  Facio  and  Efficio. — Facio  in  the  sense  of  assume,  suppose,  takes  the 

Infinitive ; efficio  in  the  sense  oi prove,  show,  either  the  Infinitive  or  the  Sub- 
junctive with  ut,  etca : j ± • 

Fac  animos  non  rSmangre  post  mortem.  Assume  that  souls  do  not  survive 
after  death.  Cic.  Vult  eff icSre  animos  esse  mortales.  He  wishes  to  show  thal 
souls  are  mortal.  Cic. 

V.  Verbs  of  emotion  or  feeling,  whether  of  joy  or  sorrow, 

^ \ The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative,  to  express  the  Ob- 
ject in  view  of  which  the  feeling  is  exercised.  See  661.  111. 

2.  Clauses  with  quod^  to  make  more  prominent  the  Keason  tor 
the  feeling : 

Gaudeo  quod  te  interpellavi,  Iryoice  that  (or  because)  I have  interrupt- 
ed you.  Cic.  DSlebam  quod  socium  amiseram,  I was  grieving  because  I had 
lost  a companion.  Cic.  See  520.  I. 

For  Verbs  of  Desiring,  see  551.  II.  2. 

VI.  Verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  advising,  warning,  com- 


262 


OBJECT  CLAUSES.  GERUNDS. 


MANDiNG,  and  the  like,  take  the  Subjunctive,  generally  with  ut 
or  ne  : 

Oro  ut  homines  miseros  conserves,  I implore  that  you  would  preserve  the 
unhappy  men.  Cic.  Postulant  ut  signum  detur,  They  demand  that  the  sig- 
nal le  given.  Liv.  See  492.  2. 

1.  Examples. — Verbs  of  this  class  are  numerous — the  following  are  examples: 
oro,  rogo,  peto,  precor,  obsecro— flagito,  postulo,  praecipio— hortor,  moueo,  suadtto, 
persuadeo— impello,  incito,  moveo,  commoveo. 

2.  Used  as  Verba  Declarandi. — Some  of  these  verbs  in  particular  significa- 
tions become  verha  declarandi  (551.  2),  and  accordingly  take  the  Infinitive  with 
Subject  Accusative:  thus  moneo^  in  the  sense  of  remind  persuadeo  in  the  sense 
of  convince. 

3.  Infinitive.— Even  in  their  ordinary  significations  some  of  these  verbs,  espe- 
cially horior^  moneo.^  and  postulo^  sometimes  take  the  Infinitive  with  or  without  a 
Subject  Accusative : 

Postulat  se  absolvi,  He  demands  that  he  should  te  acquitted.  Cic.  See  551, 
II.  1 and  2. 

The  Infinitive  is  much  more  common  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 


SECTION  X 

GERUND. 

559.  The  Gerund  is  a verb  in  force,  but  a noun  in  form 
and  inflection.  As  a verb  it  governs  oblique  cases  and 
takes  adverbial  modifiers,  as  a noun  it  is  itself  governed. 

560.  The  Gerund  has  four  cases : Genitive,  Dative,  Ac- 
cusative, and  Ablative,  governed  like  nouns  in  the  same  sit- 
uation : 

Beate  vivendi  cupiditate  incensi  sumus,  We  are  animated  with  the  desire 
of  living  happily.  Cic.  Charta  inutilis  paper  unfit  for  writing. 

Plin.  Ad  agendum  natus,  horn  for  action.  Cic.  In  agendo,  in  acting.  Cic. 

1.  Accusative. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  only  after  Prepo- 
sitions. 

2.  Gerund  and  Infinitive. — The  gernnd  and  the  infinitive  are  kindred 
forms,  expressing  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a noun  (196.  II.). 
They  are  also  complements  of  each  other,  the  one  supplying  the  parts  which 
are  wanting  in  the  other.  Thus  the  infinitive  supplies  the  nominative  and 
the  accusative  after  verbs  (548) ; the  gerund  supplies  the  genitive,  dative, 
and  ablative,  and  the  accusative  after  prepositions. 

561.  Gerunds  with  Direct  Objects  are  regularly  used 
only  in  the  Genitive  and  in  the  Ablative  without  a prepo- 
sition : 

Jus  vocandi  the  right  of  summoning  the  senate.  Liv.  Injurias 

ferendo  laudem  mereberis.  You  will  merit  praise  by  hearing  wrongs.  Cic. 


GEKUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES. 


283 


662.  Gerundive. — The  place  of  the  Gerund  with  a Di- 
rect Object  is  supplied  by  putting  that  object  in  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  and  changing  the  latter  into  the  participle  in 
-dus  in  agreement  with  it.  The  participle  is  then  called  a 
Gerundive : 

Inita  sunt  consilia  urbis  delendae  = urbem  dSlendi,  Plans  have  heen 
formed  for  destroying  the  city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Niima  sa- 
cerdotibus creandis  animum  adjecit,  Nuina  gave  his  attention  to  the  appoint^ 
ment  of  priests,  Liv. 

1.  Explanation.— With  the  Gerund,  the  first  example  would  be : Inita 
sunt  consUia  urlem  delendi,  in  which  delendi  is  governed  by  consUia,  and 
urbem  by  delendi.  In  changing  this  to  the  Gerundive  construction, 

1)  Urhem,  the  object,  is  changed  into  urhis,  the  case  of  the  gerund,  and  is 
governed  by  consilia.  . 

2)  Delendi,  the  gerund,  is  changed  into  delendae,  the  gerundive,  in  agree- 
ment with  urbis. 

2.  Gerundive. — For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  term  Gerundive  is  used  not 
only  to  designate  the  Participle,  but  also  the  Construction  as  a whole,  includ- 
ing both  the  participle  and  the  noun  with  which  it  agrees. 

3.  Use  op  Gerundive.— The  Gerundive  may  be  used  for  the  Gerund 
with  a Direct  Object,  and  is  almost  invariably  so  used  when  the  Gerund 
would  be  in  the  Dative  or  would  depend  upon  a preposition.  But  see  563.  2. 

But  in  a few  instances  the  Gerund  with  a Direct  Object  occurs  in  the  Dative  or 
dependent  upon  a preposition.  See  564. 1 ; 565.  2 ; and  566. 2. 

4.  Gerundives  of  utor,  fruor,  etc.— In  general  only  the  gerundives 
of  transitive  verbs  are  used  with  their  nouns  as  equivalents  for  Gerunds 
with  Direct  Objects;  but  the  gerundives  of  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  pUior,  and 
vescor,  originally  transitive  verbs,  admit  this  construction : 

Ad  munus  fungendum, /or  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spes  potiundo- 
rum  castrorum,  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp.  Caes. 

5.  Passive  Sense. — In  a few  instances,  the  Gerund  has  in  appearance  a 
passive  sense : 

N^que  habent  propriam  percipiendi  notam.  Nor  have  they  any  proper 
marl  of  distinction,  i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them.  Cic. 


I.  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

563.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used 
with  nouns  and  adjectives : 

Gerund.— Ars  vivendi,  the  art  of  living.  Cic.  Studiosus  6rat  audiendi, 
Ile  was  desirous  of  hearing.  Nep.  Jus  v5candi  sSnatum,  the  right  of  sum^ 
moning  the  senate.  Liv.  Cupidus  te  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  ^Cic. 

Gerundive. — Libido  ejus  videndi,  the  desire  of  seeing  him.  Cic.  Platonis 
studiosus  audiendi  fuit.  He  was  fond  of  hearing  Plato,  Cic. 


264 


GERUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES. 


1.  The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  occurs  most  frequently ~ 

1)  With  ars,  scientia,  consuetildo, — cupiditas,  libido,  stiidium,  consilium, 
vdluntas,  spes,~pdtestas,  facultas,  difficultas,  occasio,  tempus,— ggnus,  mo* 
dus,  ratio, — causa,  gratia,  etc. 

^ 2)  With  adjectives  denoting  desire^  Tcnowledge,  skill,  recollection,  and 

their  opposites:  avidus,  cupidus,  studiosus — conscius,  gnarus,  ignarus p6il- 

tus,  imperitus,  insuetus,  etc. 

2.  Gerund  preferred.— A gerund  with  a neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  as 
object  should  not  be  changed  to  the  participial  construction,  because  the  lat- 
ter could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things 
from  the  false,  Cic. 

3.  Gerund  with  Genitive.— The  Gerund  in  the  Genitive  sometimes  as- 
sumes so  completely  the  force  of  a noun  as  to  govern  the  Genitive  instead  of 
the  Accusative : 

Kejiciendi  judicum  pStestas,  tU  power  of  challenging  (of)  the  judges. 

Cic. 


Here  reficiendi  may  be  governed  by  poUstas,  and  may  itself  by  its  substantive 
force  govern  yadlcam,  the  challengingof  the  judges,  etc.  But  these  and  similarforms 
in  di  are  sometimes  explained  not  as  Gerunds  but  as  Gerundives,  like  Gerundives 
with  mei,  nostri,  etc.  See  4 below. 

4,  Participial  Construction  with  mei,  nostri,  etc.— With  the  Geni- 
tiye  of  personal  pronouns-mef,  nostri,  tui,  resiri,  sui—the  participle  ends  in 
di  without  reference  to  Number  or  Gender : 

^ Copia  placandi  tui  {of  a woman),  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you,  Ov. 
Sui  conser  vandi  causa, /or  the  purpose  of  preserving  themselves,  Cic.  Vestri 
adhortandi  causa, /or  the  purpose  of  exhorting  you,  Liv. 


This  apparent  irregularity  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  these  genitives 
though  used  as  Personal  Pronouns,  are  all  strictly  in  form  in  the  neuter  singular  of 
the  Possessives  meum,  tmmi,  suum,  etc.,  hence  the  participle  in  di  agrees  with  them 
perfectly.  ^ 


5.  Purpose.— The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  sometimes 
used  to  express  Purpose  or  Tendency : 

Haec  tradendae  Hannibali  victoriae  sunt.  These  things  are  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal,  Liv.  Leges  pellendi  claros  viros,  Uws  for 
driving  away  illustrious  men,  Tac.  Proficiscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis. 
He  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  studying  antiquity,  Tac. 

This  genitive  is  sometimes  best  explained  as  Predicate  Genitive  (401),  as  in  the 
first  example;  sometimes  as  dependent  upon  a noun,  as  pellendi  dependent  upon  leges 
in  tbe  second  example;  and  sometimes  simply  as  a Genitive  of  Cause  (393,  409.  4),  as 
in  the  third  example ; though  in  such  cases,  especially  in  the  second  and  third,  causa 
may  be  supplied. 

6.  Infinitive  for  Gerund.— The  Infinitive  for  the  Genitive  of  the 
Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  often  used  in  the  poets  with  nouns  and  adjectives, 
sometimes  even  in  prose  : 

Cupido  Stygios  iunare  lacus,  the  desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes, 
V^ir-g.  Avidus  committere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  battle,  Ovid. 


GERUNDS  AND  GERUNDIVES. 


265 


II.  Dative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

564.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used 
with  a few  verbs  and  adjectives  which  regularly  govern  the 
Dative : 

Gerund.— Quum  solvendo  non  essent,  they  were  not  able  to  pay 

Cic,  Aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  Water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plm. 

Gerundive.— Ldcum  oppido  condendo  ceperunt,  They  selected  a placi 
for  founding  a city,  Liv.  Tempera  demetendis  fructibus  accommodata, 
seasons  suitable  for  gathering  fruits,  Cic. 

1.  Gerund.— The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  rare  and  confined  mostly  to 
late  writers ; with  an  object  it  is  almost  without  example. 

2.  Gerundive  op  Purpose.— In  Livy,  Tacitus,  and  late  writers,  the  Da- 
tive of  the  Gerundive  often  denotes  purpose : ^ 

Firmandae  valetudini  in  Campaniam  concessit,  He  withdrew  Mo  Cam- 
pania  to  confirm  his  health.  Tac. 

3.  Gerundive  with  Official  Names.— The  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  also 
stands  after  certain  official  names,  as  decemviri,  triumviri,  comitia  : 

DScemviros  Iggibus  scribendis  creavimus.  We  have  appointed  a commit- 
tee often  to  prepare  laws.  Liv.  But  the  Dative  is  perhaps  best  explained 
as  dependent  upon  the  verb. 


III.  Accusative  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives. 

565.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is 
used  after  a few  prepositions  : 

Gerund. — Ad  discendum  propensi  siimus,  We  are  inclined  to  learn  (to 
learning).  Cic.  Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

Gerundive. — for  cultivating  the  fields,  Cic.  Ante 
condendam  urbem,  before  the  founding  of  the  city,  Liv. 

1.  Prepositions.— The  Accusative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used 
most  frequently  after  ad  j sometimes  after  inter  and  ob  j very  rarely  after 
ante,  circa,  and  in. 

2.  With  Object. — The  aceusative  of  a gerund  with  a direct  object 
sometimes  occurs,  but  is  rare  : 

Ad  placandum  deos  pertinet.  It  tends  to  appease  the  gods,  Cic. 

3.  Purpose.— With  verbs  of  leading,  taking,  etc.,  the 

purpose  of  the  action  is  sometimes  denoted  by  the  Gerund  with  ad,  or  by 
the  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  a noun  : 

Ad  imitandum  mihi  propositum  exemplar  illud.  That  model  has  been  set 
before  me  for  imitation.  Cic.  Attribuit  Italiam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastan- 
dum) Catilinae,  He  assigned  Italy  to  Catiline  to  ravage  {io  be  ravaged).  Cic. 


206 


SUPINE. 


IV,  Ablative  op  Gerunds  or  Gerundives. 

606.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  is  used, 

I.  As  Ablative  of  Means  or  Instrument: 

Gerund, — Mens  discendo  alitnr,  The  mind  is  nourished  hy  learning,  Cic. 
Salutem  hominibus  dando,  hy  giving  safety  to  men,  Cic. 

Gerundive. — Legendis  oratoribus,  hy  reading  the  orators,  Cic. 

II.  With  Prepositions  : 

Gerund.— Virtutes  cernuntur  in  agendo,  Virtues  are  seen  in  action,  Cic. 
Deterrere  a scribendo,  to  deter  from  writing.  Cic. 

Gerundive. — Brutus  in  liberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Brutus  was  slain 
in  liherating  his  country.  Cic. 

1.  Prepositions. — The  ablative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used  most 
frequently  after  in  j sometimes  after  a (ab),  de,  ex  (e) ; very  rarely  after 
cum  and  pro. 

2.  With  Object. — After  prepositions,  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  with  a 
direct  object  is  exceedingly  rare  : 

In  tribuendo  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  own,  Cic. 

3.  Without  a Preposition,  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  de- 
notes in  a few  instances  some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  time^ 
separations  etc. : 

Incipiendo  refugi,  I drew  hack  in  the  very  heginning,  Cic, 


SECTION  XL 

SUPIBE. 

567.  The  Supine,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a verb  in  force^ 
but  a noun  in  form  and  inflection.  As  a verb  it  governs 
oblique  cases,  as  a noun  it  is  itself  governed. 

568.  The  Supine  has  but  two  cases : the  Accusative  in 
um  and  the  Ablative  in  ii. 


RULE  L.—Supine  in  Um. 

569.  The  Supine  in  mii  is  used  after  verbs  of  mo- 
tion to  express  purpose  : 

Legati  venerunt  res  repetitum,  Deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 
Liv.  Ad  Caesarem  congratulatum  convenerunt,  They  came  to  Caesar  to 
congratulate  him.  Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  a few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly 
«xpresa  motion : 


PARTICIPLES. 


267 


Filiam  Agrippae  nuptum  dedit,  He  ga'ce  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Agrip^ 
pa.  Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Per- 
iphrastic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  literally ; 

Bonos  omnes  perditum  eunt,  They  are  going  to  destroy  all  the  good.  Sail. 

But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  often  used  for 
the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  ire,  (=  ulcisci)  injurias  festinat,  He  hastens  to  arenge  the  injuries.  Sail, 

3.  The  Supine  in  um  with  Iri,  the  infinitive  passive  of  eo,  forms,  it  will  be  re^ 
membered  (215,  III.  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive : 

Brutum  visum  iri  a me  puto,  I think.  Brutus  will  he  seen  hy  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Supine  in  um  as  an  expression  of  purpose  is  not  very  common,  its  place 
is  often  supplied  even  after  verbs  of  motion  by  other  constructions : 

1)  By  ut  or  qui  with  the  Subjunctive.  See  489. 

2)  By  Gerunds  or  Gerundives.  See  563.  5 ; 564.  2;  565.  3. 

3)  By  Participles.  See  578.  V. 

570.  The  Supine  in  it  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (429)  : 

Quid  est  tam  juqundum  auditu,  What  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hear- 
, ing)  ? Cic.  Difficile  dictu  est,  It  is  difficult  to  tell,  Cic. 

1.  The  Supine  in  u is  used  chiefly  with— jiicundus,  optimus— facilis,  proclivis, 
difficilis— incredibilis,  memorabilis— honestus,  turpis,  fas,  nefas— dignus,  indignus— 
opus  est. 

2.  The  Supine  in  u is  very  rare,  and  does  not  occur  with  an  object.  The  only 
examples  in  common  use  are  : audltu.,  cognitu.,  dictu.,  and  factu. 

3.  As  the  Supine  in  u is  little  used,  its  place  is  supplied  by  other  constructions  • 

1)  By  ad  with  the  Gerund:  Verba  ad  audiendum  jilcunda,  words  agreeable  to 
hear.  Cic. 

2)  By  the  Infinitive : Facile  est  vincere,  It  is  easy  to  conquer.  Cic. 

3)  By  a Finite  Mood  with  an  adverb:  Non  facile  dijudicatur  amor  fictus, Pre- 
iended  love  is  not  easy  to  detect  (is  not  easily  detected).  Cic. 


SECTION  XII. 


PAR  TICIPLES, 


I.  Tenses  of  Participles. 


671.  Participles,  like  Infinitives,  express  only  relative 
time,  and  represent  the  action  as  Present,  Past,  or  Future, 
f relatively  to  the  principal  verb. 

Peculiakities. — Tenses  in  Participles  present  the  leading  peculiarities  specified 
under  the  corresponding  tenses  in  the  Indicative.  See  467.  2. 

572.  Present  Participle. — The  present  participle  rep- 
resents the  action  as  taking  place  at  the  time  denoted  by 
; the  principal  verb  : 

r Oculud  se  non  videns  alia  cernit,  The  eye,  though  it  does  not  see  itself  (not 


268 


USE  OF  PARTICIPLES. 


seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic.  Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Flato 
died  while  writing.  Cic. 

573.  Future  Participle. — The  future  active  parti- 
ciple represents  the  action  as  about  to  take  place,  in  time 
subsequent  to  that  of  the  principal  verb : 

Sapiens  bona  semper  placitura  laudat,  The  wise  man  praises  blessings 
which  will  always  please  (being  about  to  please).  Sen.  ) 

But  the  Future  Passive  generally  loses  in  a great  de- 
gree its  force  as  a tense,  and  is  often  best  rendered  by  a 
verbal  noun.  See  562  and  580. 

574.  Perfect  Participle. — The  perfect  participle  rep- 
resents the  action  as  completed  at  the  time  of  the  principal 
verb. 

Uva  maturata  dulcescit,  The  grape,  when  it  has  ripened  (having  ripen- 
ed), becomes  sweet.  Cic. 

1.  The  Perfect  Participle,  both  in  Deponent  and  in  Passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
used  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  Passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a great  degree  its 
force  as  a tense,  and  is  best  rendered  by  a verbal  noun.  See  580. 

2.  For  the  Participle  with  habeo,  see  388. 1 2). 


II.  Use  of  Participles. 

575.  Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  Adjectives  in 
form  and  inflection.  As  verbs  they  govern  oblique  cases, 
as  adjectives  they  agree  with  nouns  : 

Animus  se  non  videns  alia  cernit.  The  mind,  though  it  does  not  see  itself, 
discerns  other  things.  Cic. 

1.  Participles  in  the  Present  or  Perfect,  rarely  in  the  Future,  may  be  used  as 
adjectives  or  nouns : scripta  epistola,  a written  letter ; mortui,  the  dead.  Participles 
with  the  force  of  adjectives  maybe  used  as  predicate  adjectives  with  sum:  occiipdti 
erant,  they  were  occupied;  as  a verb,  had  been  occupied. 

576.  Participles  are  used  to  abridge  or  shorten  dis- 
course by  supplying  the  place  of  finite  verbs  with  relatives 
or  conjunctions.  They  are  used  with  much  greater  free- 
dom in  Latin  than  in  English. 

577.  Participle  for  Relative  Clause. — In  abridged 
sentences,  the  Participle  often  supplies  the  place  of  a Rela- 
tive Clause ; 


USE  OF  PARTICIPLES. 


269 


Omnes  Sliud  agentes,  aliud  simulantes  improbi  sunt,  AU  who  do  one 
thing  andjpretend  another  are  dishonest,  Cic. 

578.  For  other  Subordinate  Clauses. — The  Parti- 
ciple often  supplies  the  place  of  a subordinate  clause  with 
a conjunction.  It  may  express, 

I.  Time  : 

Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing,  Cic.  Ittiri  in 
proelium  canunt.  They  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle,  Tac, 

II.  Cause,  Manner,  Means  : 

Sol  driens  diem  conficit.  The  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day,  Cic. 
Milites  renuntiant,  se  perfidiam  veritos  revertisse,  The  soldiers  rejyort  that 
they  returned  because  they  feared  perfidy  (having  feared).  Caes. 

III.  Condition : 

Mendaci  homini  ne  verum  quidem  dicenti  credere  non  solemus,  We  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a liar,  even  if  he  speaks  the  truth,  Cic.  Reluctante  natura, 
irritus  labor  est.  If  nature  opposes,  effort  is  vain.  Sen. 

IV.  Concession  : 

Scripta  tua  jam  diu  exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare.  Though  1 
have  been  long  expecting  your  work,  yet  I do  not  dare  to  ask  for  it,  Cic. 

V.  Purpose  : 

Perseus  rediit,  belli  casum  tentaturus,  Perseus  returned  to  (about 
to  try)  the  fortune  of  war,  Liv.  Attribuit  nos  trucidandos  Cethego,  He  as^ 
signed  us  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter,  Cic. 

579.  Participle  for  Principal  Clause.— The  Parti- 
ciple sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  a principal  or 
dinate  clause,  and  may  accordingly  be  best  rendered  by  a 
finite  verb  with  and  or  but : 

Classem  devictam  cepit,  He  conquered  and  took  the  fleet  (took  the  fleet 
conquered).  Nep.  Re  consentientes  vocabulis  differebant.  They  agreed  in 
fact,  but  differed  in  words,  Cic. 

580.  Paeticiple  foe  Veebal  Noux.— The  Passive 
Participle  is  often  used  in  Latin  where  the  English  idiom 
requires  a participial  noun,  or  a verbal  noun  with  of: 

In  amicis  eligendis,  in  selecting  friends.  Cic.  HomSrus  fuit  ante  RS- 
mam  conditam,  Homer  lived  (was)  before  the  founding  of  Home  (before  Rome 
founded).  Cic. 

581.  Participle  with  Kegatiye. — The  Participle 


270 


PARTICLES. 


with  a negative,  as  non^  nihil^  is  often  best  rendered  by 
a participial  noun  and  the  preposition  without : 

Miserum  est,  nihil  proficientem  angi,  It  is  sad  to  he  troubled  without 
accomplishing  anything,  Cic.  Non  erubescens,  without  blushing.  Cic. 


CHAPTEE  YI 

SYNTAX  OF  PASTICLES. 

EULS  LI— Use  of  Adverbs. 

582.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other 

ADVERBS  : 

Sapientes  feliciter  vivunt.  The  wise  live  happily.  Cic.  Facile  doctis- 
simus, unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Ilaud  aliter,  not  otherwise. 
Virg. 

583.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  nouns  : 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  used  with  the  force  of  adjectives  or  participles : 
3Iinime  largitor  dux,  a leader  by  no  means  liberal.  Liv.  Populus  late 

rex,  a people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  extensively).  Yirg. 

2.  When  in  sense  a participle  or  verb  may  be  supplied : 

Marius,  plane  vir,  Marius^  truly  a man.  Cic.  Omnes  circa  populi,  all 
the  surrounding  peoples.  Liv.  See  also  353.  2. 

584.  The  Common  Negative  Particles  are : 7ion^  nd, 
hand. 

1.  Non  is  tho  usual  negative,  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions,  wishes  and  purposes 
(489),  and  liaudi^  in  haud  scio  an  and  with  adjectives  and  adverbs;  hand  mlrdhlle^ 
not  wonderful ; haud  dlUer^  not  otherwise.  Ni  for  ne  is  rare.  Ne  non  after  vide  is 
often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  mbdo  non  and  in  non  solum  non.,  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted 
before  sed.,  or  nerum.,  follow’ed  by  ne — quldem  or  nix  (rarely  etiam).,  when  the  verb 
of  the  second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first : 

Assentatio  non  modo  amico,  sed  ne  libSro  quidem  digna  est.  Flattery  is  not 
only  not  worthy  of  a friend,  hut  not  even  of  a free  man.  Cic. 

8.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non  ; si  minus  = si  non.  Sin  dliter  has 
nearly  the  same  force  as  si  minus. 


PARTICLES. 


271 


585.  Two  Negatives  are  generally  equivalent  to  an 
affirmative,  as  in  English : 

Nihil  non  arroget,  Ld  Urn  claim  everytUng.  Hor.  Neque  hoc  Zeno 
non  videt,  Nor  did  Zeno  overlook  this.  Cio. 

I WO»  hefore  a general  negative  gives  it  the  force  of  an  indefinite  afllrmativc, 

bnt  after  such  negative  the  force  of  a general  affirmative; 

KonndL,  some  one;  nonnihil,  something;  nonnunquam,  sor^Umes. 

Nemo  non  every  one  ; nihil  non,  en^ery  thing;  nunquam  non,  always. 

f Zer  a geneL  negative,  ne-guUem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and 

tierce,  and  th  ^^.tnntpass  hyeven  this.  Cic.  Nemo 

Non  f actoera  t ^ ^ Cio. 

unqi^mneque^po^  mean  so,  thus.  Ita  has  also  a limiting  sense  in 

^ 4^  Adeo  to  such  a degree  or  result,  tom,  tan- 

«Srsfn^LMZ  used  mostUofore  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  before 

verbs. 

586.  For  the  use  of  Prepositions,  see  432  to  437. 

587.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  unite  similar  construc- 
tions (309).  They  comprise  five  classes: 

I.  Copulative  Conjunctions  denote  union: 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Cio.  Sgnatus  populusque,  thesen- 
ale  and  people.  Cic.  Nec  6rat  difificlle,  Nor  was  it  difficult.  Liv. 

1.  List.  See  310. 1.  > . a. 

2*Diffeeence  in  Force.-^  simply  connects;  que  implies  a more  intimate 
relationship;  generally  gives  prominence  to  what  follows,  especWly  at  the  be- 

Kinnin-  of  a sentence;  «c,  abbreviated  from  atque,  has  generally  the  force  of  et. 
Miqmaad.  nec  have  the  force  of  et  non.  Et  and  etiam  sometimes  mean  erm. 

Atque  and  ac  generally  mean  as,  than  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  likeness 
and  unlikeness;  simiUs,  dissimilis,  similiter,  par,  pariter,  aeque,  alms,  a.iter,  secus: 
aeque  ac,  equally  as ; alter  atque,  otherwise  than.  See  also  451.  5. 

8.  Que  ao  atque,— is  an  enclitic,  i.  e.,  is  always  appended  to  some  other 
word.  Ac  in  the  best  prose  is  used  only  before  consonants ; atque,  either  before 
vowels  or  consonants, 

4.  Etiam,  quoque,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  et,  atque, 
ac  and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.  Quoque  follows  the  word  which 
it  connects:  is  quAque,  he  also.  Etiam,  also,  further,  even,  is  more  comprehensive 
than  qubque  and  often  adds  a new  circumstance. 

■ 6 CoEEELATivES.-Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used:  et  (que)-et  (que), 

turn-turn,  quum-tum,  loth-and ; but  quum-tum  gives  prominence  to  the  second 
word  or  clause;  non  solum  (non  mode,  or  non  tantum)-sed  etiam  (verum  etiam), 
not  only-but  also;  neque  (nec)-n6que  (uec),neither-nor ; neque  (nec)-et  (que), 

not— hut  (both)— and  not. 

6 Omitted.— Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is 
generally  expressed,  though  sometimes  omitted,  especialiy  between  the  names  of  two 
Llleagues.  Between  several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or 


272 


PARTICLES. 


omitted  altogether,  though  que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction 
is  omitted  between  the  others : pax  et  tranquillitas  et  concordia^  or  pax^  tranquil- 
litas^ concordia^  or  pax^  tranquillitas^  concordidque. 

Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditioual  clauses,  except  before  non. 

II.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  denote  separation  : 

Aut  vestra  aut  sua  culpa,  either  your  fault,  or  his  own.  Liv.  Duabus 
tribusve  horis,  in  two  or  three  hours.  Cic. 

1.  List.  See  310.  2. 

2.  Aut,  vel,  ve.— denotes  a stronger  antithesis  than  rel,  and  must  be  used 
if  the  one  supposition  excludes  the  other:  aut  rerum  aut  falsum,  either  true  or  false. 
Vel  implies  a difference  in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.  It  is  generally  cor- 
rective and  is  often  followed  potius,  etiam  or  dicam : laudatur  rei  etiam  amatur, 
he  is  praised,  or  even  (rather)  loved.  It  sometimes  means  eren  and  sometimes /or 
example.  Velut  often  means/or  example.  Ye  for  rel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

In  negative  clauses  aut  and  re  often  continue  the  negation : non  honor  aut  vir- 
tus, neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue. 

8.  SiVB  {si — re)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition;  it  often  con- 
nects different  names  of  the  same  object:  Pallas  sire  Minerra,  Pallas  or  Minerva 
(another  name  of  the  same  goddess). 

III.  Adversative  Conjunctions  denote  opposition  or 
contrast : 

Ciipio  me  esse  elementum,  sed  me  inertiae  condemno,  I wish  to  he  mild, 
hat  I condemn  myself  for  inaction.  Cic. 

1.  List.  See  810.  8. 

2.  Difference  in  Force. — Sed  and  rerum  mark  a direct  opposition ; autem 
and  rero  only  a transition  ; at  emphasizes  the  opposition;  atqui  often  introduces  an 
objection;  ceterum,  but  still,  as  to  the  rest;  tdmen,  yet. 

3.  Compounds  of  tamen  are : attamen,  sedtdmen,  reruntdmen,  but  yet. 

4.  Autem  and  vero  follow  the  words  which  they  connect:  Me  autem,  hic  r^ro, 
but  this  one.  They  are  often  omitted,  especially  before  non.  They  are  admissible 
with  qui  only  when  it  is  followed  by  its  antecedent. 

IV.  Illative  Conjunctions  denote  inference  : 

In  umbra  igitur  pugnabimus,  shall  therefore  fight  in  the  shade.  Cic. 

1.  List.  See  810.  4. 

2.  Other  Words. — Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and 
sometimes  with  conjunctions,  are  also  illatives:  eo,  ideo,  idcirco,  propterea,  quam- 
obrem,  quapropter,  quare,  quocirca. 

3.  Igitur. — This  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects:  hie  igitur,  this 
one  therefore.  After  a digression  igitur,  sed,  sed  tdmen,  rerum,  rerum  tdmen,  etc., 
are  often  used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be 
rendered  I say  : Sed  si  quis  ; if  any  one,  I say. 

V.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Difficile  est  consilium;  sura  Snim  solus,  Counsel  is  difficult,  for  1 am 
alone.  Cic.  EtSnim  jus  amant.  For  they  love  the  right.  Cic. 

1.  List.  See  310.  5. 


PAETICLES, 


273 


2.  Etenim  and  Namqfe  denote  a closer  connection  than  ^nim  and  nam, 

3.  Enim  follows  its  word. 

588  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate 
with  principal  constructions  (309.  II.).  They  comprise 
eight  classes. 

I.  Temporal  Conjunctions  denote  time  : 

Paruit  quum  necesse  erat,  He  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic.  Dum 
Qyo  in  Sicilia  sum,  while  lam  in  Sicily,  Cic.  See  also  311.  1 ; 521-523. 

° 1.  Dum  added  to  a negative  means  yet ; nondum.,  not  yet ; vixdum.,  scarcely  yet. 

II.  Comparative  Conjunctions  denote  comparison  : 

Ut  optasti,  ita  est.  It  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  Velut  si  adesset,  as  ij  he 
were  'present.  Caes.  See  also  311.  2 ; 503,  506. 

1,  C0P.KELATIVE8  are  often  used:  Tam — quam,  crs,  so — as.,  as  much  as ^ tarn 
quara  quod  maxime,  as  much  as  possible ; non  minus— quam,  noi  less  than ; non 
magis — quam,  not  more  than. 

Tam— quam  and  ut—Ua  with  a superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  the 
with  the  comparative  : ut  maxime — ita  max\me,ihe  more— the  more. 


III.  Conditional  Conjunctions  denote  condition  ; 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  If  1 Timi  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  Nisi  est  con- 
cilium ddmi,  ■unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home.  Cic.  See  also  311.  3 ; 503.  507. 

1 msi  if  not,  In  negative  sentences  often  means  eiecept,  and  nisi  q'uod,  except 
that,  may  be  used  even  in  affirmative  sentences.  Nisi  may  mean  than.  MMl  mud 
nisi  = nothing  further  (more,  except) ; nihil  dliud  qnam  = nothing  else  (other 
than). 

IV.  Concessive  Conjunctions  denote  concession : 
Quamquam  intelligunt,  thovqh  they  ■understand.  Ck.  Etsi  nihil  habeat, 

although  he  has  nothing.  Cic.  See  also  311.  4;  515.  516. 

V.  Final  Conjunctions  denote  purpose  : 

Esse  oportet,  ut  vivas.  It  is  necessary  to  eat,  that  you  may  live.  Cic. 
See  also  311.  5 ; 48.9-499. 


VI.  Consecutive  Conjunctions  denote  consequence  or 
result : 

Atticus  ita  vixit,  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus 
that  he  was  ■very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  See  also  «11.  6 ; 

VII.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Quae  quum  ita  sint.  Since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  See  also  311.  7 ; 
517.  518. 

VIII.  Interrogative  Conjunctions  or  Particles  denote 
inquii'y  or  question : 

Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem.  You  had  ashed  whether  I did  not  think 
Cic.  See  also  311.  8 ; 846.  II.,  525.  526. 


INTERJECTIONS.  RULES, 


2H 


IV.  Interjections. 

689.  Interjections  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone, 
as  cheu^  alas  I and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns. 
See  381  and  381.  3.' 

590.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  im- 
precations, sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections.  Thus; 

Pax  {peace)y  he  still!  miserum,  miserabile,  sadi,  lamentable!  OYo^prayi 
Sge,  Sgite,  come,  well!  meberciiles,  by  Hercules!  per  deum  fidem,  in  the 
name  of  the  gods  ! sodes  = si  audes  {for  audies),  if  you  will  hear! 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

591.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Sales 
of  Syntax  are  here  introduced  in  a body.  The  enclosed 
numerals  refer  to  the  various  articles  in  the  work  where  the 
several  topics  are  more  fully  discussed. 

XOUKS. 

Ageekment. 

_ A Peedicate  Notin'  denoting  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  its  Subject,  agrees  with  it  in  case  (362)  ; 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  I am  a messenger.  Liv. 

II.  An  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  case  (363) : 

Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  theUng  dies.  Liv. 

Nominative. 

III.  The  Subject  of  a Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive (367): 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv. 

Vocative. 

IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  (369) : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed,  Laelius.  Cic. 


RULES  OF  SYisTAX. 


275 


Accusative. 

V.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accu- 
sative (371) : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  mads  the  world,  Cic. 

VI.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding, 
SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
person  or  thing  (373)  : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  They  made  Hamilcar  commander, 
Nep. 

VII.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and 
CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives  in  the  Active,  and  one 
in  the  Passive  (374): 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  He  asked  me  my  opinion,  Cic, 

VIII.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are 
expressed  by  the  Accusative  (378) : 

Septem  et  triginta  regnavit  anpos,  He  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  Liv. 
Quinque  millia  passuum  ambiilare,  to  walk  five  miles,  Cic. 

IX.  The  Name  of  a Town  used  as  the  Limit  of  motion 
is  put  in  the  Accusative  (379) : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit,  The  messenger  returns  to  Rome,  Liv. 

X.  A Verb  or  Adjective  may  take  an  Adverbial  Accu- 
sative to  define  its  application  (380) : 

Capita  velamur,  We  have  our  heads  veiled.  Yirg.  Nube  humeros 
amictus,  with  his  shoulders  enveloped  in  a cloud.  Ilor. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  Interjec- 
tion, may  be  used  in  Exclamations  (381): 

Heu  me  miserum,  Ah  m^  unhappy  I Cic. 

I 

Dative. 

4^  * 

XII.  The  Indirect  Object  is  put  in  the  Dative  (384) : 

Tempori  cedit.  He  yields  to  the  time.  Cic. 

Dative  of  Advantage  and  Disadvantage  (385). 

Dative  with  Compounds  (386). 

Dative  of  Possessor  (387). 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent  (388). 

Ethical  Dative  (389). 


IB 


276 


KULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


XIII.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  ob- 
ject FOR  WHICH — occur  witli  a few  verbs  (390) ; 

Malo  est  hommibus  avaritia,  Avarice  is  (for)  an  evil  to  men.  Cic, 

XIV.  With  Adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  quality 
is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  carum  est,  It  is  dear  to  all.  Cic. 

XY.  A few  Derivative  Nouns  and  Adverbs  take  the 
Dative  after  the  analogy  of  their  primitives  (392) : 

Obtemperatio  legibus,  obedience  to  the  laws.  Cic.  Congruenter  natu- 
rae, agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

Genitive. 

XVI.  Any  noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395) : 

Catonis  orationes,  Cato's  orations.  Cic. 

XVIL  Many  Adjectives  take  a Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning  (399) : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic. 

XVIIL  A Predicate  Noun  denoting  a different  person 
or  thing  from  its  Subject,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  All  things  belonged  to  (were  of ) the  enemy.  Liv. 

XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406), 

I.  With  missreor  and  miseresco : 

Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors.  Yirg. 

II.  With  recordor,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor  : 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  He  remembers  the  past.  Cic. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest ; 

Interest  omnium.  It  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic. 

XX.  A few  verbs  take  the  Accusative  of  the  Person 
and  the  Genitive  of  the  Thing  (410) : 

I.  oi  Reminding^  Admonishing : 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  He  reminds  you  of  friendship.  Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  Accusing.,  Convicting.,  Acquitting : 

Viros  scMeris  arguis.  You  accuse  men  of  crime.  Cic. 

III.  Mlscret.,  Poenltety  Pudet.,  Taedet.,  and  Piget : 

Eorum  nos  misSret,  We  pnty  them.  Cic. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


277 


For  the  Genitive  of  Place^  see  Rule  XXVL 

Ablative. 


XXI.  Cause,  Manner,  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  (414) : 

UtHitate  laudatur,  It  is  praised  because  of  its  usefulness,  Cic. 

XXII.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
(416): 

Yendidit  auro  patriam,  He  sold  his  country  for  gold,  Yirg.  . 

XXIIL  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by 
the  Ablative  (417) : 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute.  Nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue,  Cic. 

XXIV.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  (418) : 

Uno  die  longior,  longer  by  one  day,  Cic. 

XXV.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419), 

1.  With  utor,  fnior,  fiingor,  potior,  ves^or,  and  their  co 


pounds : 


Plurimis  rebus  fruimur.  We  enjoy  very  many  things.' X^\c,  ^ 

II.  Withfido,  confido,  nitor,  innitor: 

Salus  veritate  nititur.  Safety  rests  upon  truth,  Cic. 

III.  With  Yerbs  and  Adjectives  op  Plenty  and  Want  : 

Non  6geo  mSdicina,  Ido  not  need  a remedy.  Cic.  v 

lY.  With  dignus,  indignus,  contentus,  and  fretus : 

Digni  sunt  amicitia.  They  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic. 

Y.  With  opus  and  usus: 

Auctoritate  tua  nobis  opus  est,  We  need  your  authority.  Cic. 

XXVI.  I.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  and  the  place  from 
WHICH  are  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  a Prepo- 
sition. But  _ T • 1 

II.  Names  of  Towns  drop  the  Preposition,  and  in  the 
Singular  of  the  First  and  Second  declensions  designate  the 
PLACE  IN  WHICH  by  the  Locative  (421)  : 

In  Italia  fuit,  He  was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Ex  Africa,  from  Africa. 
Athenis  fuit.  He  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Romae  fuit.  He  was  at  Rome.  Ci 

XXVII.  Source  and  Separation  are  denoted  by 
Ablative,  generally  with  a preposition  (425) : 


Oriundi  ab  Sabinis,  descended  from  the  Sabines,  Liv.  Caedem  a vobis 
depello,  I ward  off  slaughter  from  you.  Cic. 

XXVIII.  The  Time  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (426) : 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  He  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic. 

XXIX.  The  Ablative  with  an  adjective  may  be  used 
to  characterize  a person  or  thing  (428) : 

Summa  virtute  adolescens,  a youth  of  the  highest  virtue,  Caes. 

XXX.  The  Ablative  may  be  used  with  a word  to  de- 
fine its  application  (429) : 

Nomine,  non  potestate  fuit  rex.  He  was  king  in  name^  not  in  power. 
Nep. 

XXXI.  The  Ablative  is  used  as  the  Case  Absolute 
(431): 

Servio  regnante,  in  the  reign  of  Servius  (Servius  reigning).  Cic. 
Cases  with  Prepositions. 

XXXII.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used 
with  Prepositions  (432) : 

Ad  amicum,  to  a friend.  Cic.  In  Italia,  in  Italy.  Nep. 

ADJECTIVES. 

XXXIII.  An  Adjective  agrees  with  its  Noun  in  gen- 
der, NUMBER,  and  CASE  (438) : 

Fortuna  caeca  est.  Fortune  is  blind.  Cic. 

PRONOUNS. 

XXXIV.  A Pronoun  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in 

GENDER,  NUMBER,  and  PERSON  (445)  : 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood.  Cic. 


BULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


279 


Indicative  Mood. 

XXXYI.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts 
(474): 

Deus  mundum  aGdificSvit,  God  made  the  world.  Cic. 


Subjunctive  Tenses. 

XXXVII.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  Principal 
tenses : Historical,  upon  Historical  (480) : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  QuaesiSras  nonne  puta- 
rem, You  had  asked  whether  I did  not  think,  Cic. 


Subjunctive  Mood. 


XXXVIII.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  represents  the 
action  not  as  real,  but  as  possible  (485) : 

Forsitan  quaeratis,  perhaps  you  may  inquire.  Cic. 

XXXIX.  The  Subjunctive  oe  Desike  represents  the 
action  not  as  real,  but  as  desired  (487) : 

Valeant  elves,  May  the  citizens  be  well.  Cic. 

XL.  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  Result  is  used 
(489), 

I.  Withut,  ne,  quo,  quin,  qu5minus: 

Enititur  ut  vincat.  He  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic. 


II.  With  qui  = ut  is,  ut  ego,  tu,  etc. : 

Missi  sunt,  qui  {ut  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  They  were  sent  to  consult 


Apollo.  Nep. 

XLI.  The  Subjunctive  of  Condition  is  used  (503), 

I.  With  dum,  mbdo,  dummodo : 

Modo  permaneat  industria,  if  only  industry  remains.  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tanquam,  tanquam  si, 
velut,  velut  si: 

Velut  si  adesset,  as  if  he  were  present,  Caes. 

III.  Sometimes  with  si,  msi,  ni,  sin,  qui  = si  is,  si  quis : 

Si  velim  niimSrare,  if  I should  wish  to  recount.  Cic. 

XLII.  The  Subjunctive  of  Concession  is  used  (515). 
I.  With  licet,  quamvis,  quantumvis,  ut,  ne,  quum,  although. 

Licet  irrideat,  though  he  may  deride.  Cic. 


280 


BULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


IT.  With  qui  = quum  (licet)  is,  quum  ego,  etc.,  though  he : 

Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  {quum  is)  fateatur,  Acquit  VerreSy  though  he 
confesses,  Cic. 

III.  Generally  with  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi : 

Etsi  optimum  sit,  even  if  (though)  it  be  most  excellent,  Cic. 

XLIII.  The  Subjunctive  of  Cause  or  Reason  is  used 
(517), 

I.  With  quum  (cum),  since ; qui  = quum  is,  etc. 

Quum  vita  m§tus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear,  Cic. 

II.  With  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  to  introduce  a reason  on 
another’s  authority : 

Quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  because  (on  the  ground  that)  he  corrupt- 
ed the  youth.  Quint. 

XLIV.  The  Subjunctive  of  Time  with  the  accessory 
notion  of  Cause  or  Pukpose  is  used  (521), 

I.  With  dum,  d5nec,  quoad,  until : 

Exspectas,  dum  dicat.  You  are  waiting  till  he  speaJcSy  i.  e.,  that  he  may 
speak.  Cic. 

II.  With  antequam,  priusquam,  before: 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam,  before  I {cdin)  speak  of  the  republic.  Cic. 

XLV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Indirect  Questions 
(526)  : 

Quid  dies  ferat,  incertum  est.  What  a day  may  bring  forth  is  uncer ^ 
tain,  Cic. 

XL  VI.  The  Subjunctive  by  Attraction  is  often  used  in 
clauses  dependent  upon  the  Subjunctive  (527) : 

Vereor,  ne,  dum  minuere  vglira  laborem,  augeam,  I fear  I shall  in 
crease  the  labor y while  I wish  to  diminish  it,  Cic. 

XLVIL  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  the  Inter- 
rogative, Imperative,  and  Subordinate  clauses  of  the  Oratio 
Obliqua  (529)  : 

Respondit,  cur  veniret,  He  repliedy  why  did  he  come,  Caes.  Scribit 
Labieno  veniat.  He  writes  to  Labienus  to  come,  Caes. 

Imperative. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


281 


Infinitive, 


XLIX.  The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Ac- 
cusative  (545): 

Sentimus  calSre  ignem,  We  perceive  that  fire  is  7hot  Cic. 

Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines. 

Participles  are  construed  as  adjectives  (575),  Gerunds 
and  Supines  as  nouns  (559,  567).  But 

L.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  to 
express  purpose  (569) : 

V enerunt  res  rSpetitum,  They  came  to  demand  restitution.  Li v. 


PARTICLES. 


LI.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  ad- 
verbs (582)  : 

Sapientes  feliciter  vivunt,  The  wise  live  happily.  Cic. 

1.  For  Prepositions,  see  Rule  XXXII. 

2.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.  See  687  and  588. 

3.  Interjections  are  expressions  of  emotion  or  mere  marks  of  address. 


Sec  68^ 


CHAPTER  YIII 


ASRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AHD  CLAUSES. 


SECTION  1. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


592.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording 
peculiar  facilities  both  for  securing  proper  emphasis  and  for 
imparting  to  its  periods  that  harmonious  flow  which  charac- 
terizes the  Latin  classics.  But  with  all  this  freedom  and 
variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of  arrangement  which 
it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 


282 


AKRAl^GEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


I.  General  Rules. 

593.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modifiers  occupies 
the  first  place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded 
by  its  modifiers  the  last  place : 

Sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  The  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic.  Animus 
aeger  semper  errat,  A diseased  mind  always  errs,  Cic.  Miltiades  Alhanas 
liberavit,  Miltiades  liberated  Athens,  Nep. 

594.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  affect  the  arrange- 
ment of  words : 

I.  Beginning. — Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be 
made  emphatic  by 'being  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence : 

Silent  leges  inter  arma,  Laws  are  silent  in  war.  Cic.  Numitori  Remus 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  to  Numitor,  Liv.  Jgni  %er  vastabatur.  The 
field  was  ravaged  with  fire.  Sail. 

II.  End. — Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  ren- 
dered emphatic  by  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence : 

Nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes.,  Even  Demosthenes  does  not  satisfy 
us.  Cic.  Consulatum  petivit  nunquam,  He  never  sought  the  consulship,  Cic. 
Exsistit  quaedam  quaestio  subdifficilis,  There  arises  a question  somewhat  dif- 
ficult, Cic. 

III.  Separation. — ^Two  words  naturally  connected,  as 
a noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a noun  and  its  genitive,  are 
sometimes  made  emphatic  by  separation : 

Objurgationes  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessariae,  Sometimes  necessary  re- 
proofs occur,  Cic.  Justitiae  fungatur  officiis.  Let  him  discharge  the  duties 
of  justice,  Cic. 

595.  Contrasted  Groups. — When  two  groups  of  words 
are  contrasted,  the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  the 
second : 

Fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  movet.  The  imperishable  soul  moves 
the  perishable  body,  Cic. 

596.  Kindred  Words.— Different  forms  of  the  same 
word,  or  different  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  gener- 
ally placed  near  each  other : 

Ad  senem  sSnex  de  senectute  scripsi,  I,  an  old  man,  wrote  to  an  old  man 
on  the  subject  of  old  age,  Cic.  Inter  se  aliis  alii  prosunt,  They  mutually  bene- 
fit eaffi  other,  Cic. 


arrangement  of  words. 


283 


597.  Words  with  a common  Relation. — A word 
which  has  a common  relation  to  two  other  words  connected 
by  conjunctions,  is  placed, 


I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

PScis  et  artes  et  gloria,  both  the  arts  ani  the  glory  of  peace.  Liv.  Belli 
pScisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 


A Genitive  or  Adjective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it  more  fre- 

QueDtly  qualifies  only  the  latter:  ^ 

Haec  percunctatio  ac  denuntiatio  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration,  of 


war.  Liv. 

II.  Somotiiiies  directly  after  the  first  before  the  con- 
junction : 

Honoris  certamen  et  gloriae,  a struggle  for  honor  and  glory.  Cic.  Agri 
omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic. 


II.  Special  Rules. 

598.  Modifiees  of  ISTouifS.— The  modifiers  of  a noun 
generally  follow  it.  They  may  be  either  adjectives  or 
nouns : 

Populus  Romanus  decrevit.  The  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Herodotus, 
pSter  historiae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  ofificiis,  thi 
booh  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Noun.— A noun  as  modifier  of  another  noun  is  generally  an  appositive, 
a genitive,  or  a case  with  a preposition,  as  in  the  examples. 

2.  With  Emphasis.— Modifiers  when  emphatic  are  placed  before  theii 

Tuscus  ager  Romano  adjacet.  Tie  Tuscan  territory  borders  on  the  Roman. 
Liv.  Catonis  orationes,  Cato's  orations.  Cic. 

8.  Adjective  and  Genitive. — When  a noun  is  modified  both  by  an  ad- 
jective and  by  a genitive,  the  usual  order  is,  adjectire— genitive— noun  : 

Magna  civium  penuria,  a great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

599.  Modifiers  of  Adjectives. — ^The  modifiers  of  the 
adjective  generally  precede  it,  but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may 
follow  it : 

Facile  doctissimus,  unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Omni  aetati 
communis,  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic. 

600.  Modifiers  of  Verbs. — ^The  modifiers  of  the  verb 
generally  precede  it : 

Gloria  virtutem  sequitur.  Glory  follows  virtue.  Cic.  Mundus  deo  paret, 
The  world  is  subject  to  God.  Cic.  Vehementer  dixit,  He  spoke  vehemmtlp. 
Cic.  Gloria  ducitur,  He  is  led  by  glory.  Cic. 


284 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS, 


1.  After  the  Verb. — When  the  verb  is  placed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course,  follow.  See  first 
example  under  594.  I. 

2.  Emphasis. — An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  coarse  stand  at  the  begin- 
ning or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  (594)  : 

Facillime  cognoscuntur  adolescentes.  Most  easily  are  the  young  men  rec- 
ognized. Cic. 

3.  Two  OR  MORE  Modifiers. — Of  two  or  more  modifiers  belonging  to  the 
same  verb,  that  which  in  thought  is  most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb 
stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged  as  emphasis  and  euphony 
may  require ; 

Rex  Scythis  bellum  intulit,  The  Icing  waged  war  against  the  Scythians. 
Nep.  Mors  propter  brevitatem  vitae  nunquam  longe  abest.  Death  is  nerer 
far  distant^  in  conseguence  of  the  shortness  of  life.  Cic. 

601.  Modifiers  of  Adverbs. — ^The  modifiers  of  the 
adverb  generally  precede  it,  but  a Dative  often  follows  it : 

Valde  vehementer  dixit,  He  spohe  very  vehemently.  Cic.  Congruenter 
natilrae  vivit,  lie  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

602.  Special  Words. — Some  words  have  a favorite 
place  in  the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.  Thus, 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun  : 

Custos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.  Cic. 

1.  Me  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450.  5)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  ac- 
companied by  an  adjective : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-Jcnown  Medea.  Cic. 

2.  Quisque,  the  indefinite  pronoun,  follows  some  other  word: 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tribuit.  Justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic. 

IT.  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tenus 
iiiid  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiam  profugit,  He  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

1.  After  a Pronoun. — The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  some- 
times other  pronouns,  and  sometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Res  qua  de  agitur,  the  subject  of  which  we  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra, 
over  against  Italy.  Virg. 

2.  Cum  Appended.— See  184,  9 and  187,  3. 

3.  Intervening  Words. — Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a few  other  words  sometimes 
stand  between  the  preposition  and  its  case.  In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated 
from  its  case  by  the  Acc.  of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  seme  other  word;  and  some- 
times the  verb  bro  is  omitted : 

Post  Alexandri  magni  mortem,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Cic. 
Ad  heme  vIvendum,yoy’  living  well.  Cic.  Per  te  deos  oro,  I pray  you  in  the  name 
of  the  gods.  Ter.  Per  ego  vos  deos  = per  deos  ego  vos  oro  {bro  understood).  1 
pray  you  in  the  name  of  the  gods.  Curt 

III.  Conj^'nctions  and  Relatives.^  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 


285 


stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ; but  auiem^  enim^  quidem^  quoque^ 
vero^  and  generally  ifihiry  follow  some  other  word  : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  ^ I have  erred^  pardon  me.  Cic.  li  qui  superiores 
sunt,  those  ivho  are  superior,  Cic.  Ipse  autem  omnia  videbat.  But  he  him- 
self  saw  all  things.  Cic, 

1.  Emphatic  Wokds  and  Relatives  often  precede  the  conjunction. 

Id  ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  quum  ita  sint,  since  these  things 
are  so.  Cic. 

2.  Ne — QUIDEM  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  parts: 

Ne  in  oppidis  quidem,  not  even  in  the  towns.  Cic. 

3.  Quidem  often  pronouns,  superlatives,  and  ordinals: 

Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audiet,  He  will  hear  nothing  from  me.  Cic. 

4.  Que,  ve,ne,  introducing  a clause  or  phrase,  are  generally  appended  to  the  first 
word,  but  if  that  word  is  a monosyllabic  preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the 
next  word:  ad  plebemve,  for  adve,  etc.,  or  to  the  people;  in f brogue  = inguefbro, 
and  in  the  forum.  Apud  quosque,  and  before  whom,  occurs  for  euphony. 

lY.  If  on,  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before 
that  word,  but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire 
clause,  it  generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause : 

Hac  villa  carere  non  possunt.  They  are  not  able  to  do  without  this  villa. 
Cic.  Non  fuit  Jupiter  metuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  be  feared.  Cic. 

V.  Inquam,  sometimes  Aio,  introducing  a quotation,  follows  one  or 
more  of  the  words  quoted.  The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows 
its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dicam.  Nothing  which  1 shall  state,  said 
Brutus.  Cic. 

VI.  The  Vocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a sentence.  It 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word : 

Perge,  Laeli,  Proceed,  Laelius.  Cic. 


SECTION  II. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 

I.  In  Complex  Sentences. 

603.  Subject  or  Predicate. — A clause  used  as  the 
subject  of  a complex  sentence  (357)  generally  stands  at 
the  be^innin^  of  the  sentence,  and  a clause  used  as  the 
predicate  at  the  end  : 

Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est.  What  a day  may  bring  forth  is  uncertain. 
Cic.  Exitus  fuit  orationis  : sibi  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,  The  close 
of  the  oration  was,  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.  Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  simple  sentence.  See  593. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of 
clauses  as  of  words.  See  594. 


286 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUs4:^.  ^ M 

\ 

604.  Subordinate  Elements. — Clauses  used  as  the 
subordinate  elements  of  complex  sentences,  admit  three 
different  arrangements : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal 
clause,  like  the  subordinate  elements  of  a simple  sentence  : 

Hostes,  iibi  primum  nostros  equites  conspexerunt,  celeriter  nostros 
perturbaverunt,  The  enemy ^ as  soon  as  they  saw  our  cavalry^  quickly  jput  ovr 
men  to  route.  Caes.  Sententia,  quae  tutissima  videbatur,  vicit.  The  opinion 
■which  seemed  the  safest  prevailed.  Liv. 

II.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause : 

Quum  quiescunt,  probant.  While  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Qua- 
lis sit  animus,  animus  nescit.  The  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Si  f 
baec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego.  If  this  is  a state  lam  a citizen.  Cic. 

This  arrangement  is  especially  common  when  the  subordinate  clause  either  re- 
fers back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal 
clause.  Hence  temporal.,  conditional,  and  concessive  clauses  often  precede  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  is — qui, 
tails — qudlis,  tantus — quantus,  tum— quum,  ita— ut,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e., 
the  clause  with  qui,  qualis,  quantus,  quum,  ut,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause  : 

Enitiitur  ut  vincat,  He  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Sol  efficit  ut  , 
omnia  floreant,  l^he  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.  Cic. 

This  arrangement  is  common  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  cither  intimately 
connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence  or  is  explanatory  of  the  principal 
clause.  Hence  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples.  See  also  examples  under  articles  489-499. 

605.  Latin  Period. — A complex  sentence  in  which 
the  subordinate  clause  is  inserted  within  the  principal  clause, 
as  under  I.,  is  called  a Period  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 

In  a freer  sense  the  same  term  is  also  applied  to  any 
sentence  in  which  the  clauses  are  so  arranged  as  not  to 
make  complete  sense  before  the  end  of  the  sentence.  In 
this  sense  the  examples  under  II.  are  periods. 

II.  In  Compound  Sentences. 

606.  Clauses  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions 
(587)  generally  follow  each  other  in  the  natural  order  of 
the  thought,  as  in  English  : 

Sol  ruit  et  montcs  umbrantur.  The  sun  descends  and  the  mountains  are 
shaded.  Virg.  Gyges  a nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  Gyges 
was  seen  by  no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 


- 1 


I 


^ u 

^ 'PaIt  FOUPxXk 


V 


^ S; 

v^rS  '-H'^  P K-JO  S ip^D  Y. 

'-  x.^ 

607.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification. 


CIIAPTEE  I. 
dVAHTITY. 

608.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a syllable  in 
poetry  is  called  its  quantity.  Syllables  are  accordingly 
characterized  as  lonff,  short,  or  common.'' 

609.  The  quantity  of  syllables  is  determined  by  poetic 
usage.  But  this  usage  conforms  in  many  cases  to  general 
laws,  while  in  other  c.ases  it  seems  somewhat  arbitrary. 

1.  Syllables  whose  quantity  conforms  to  known  rules  are  said  to  be  long 
or  short  by  rule, 

2.  Syllables  whose  quantity  does  not  conform  to  known  rules  are  said  to 
be  long  or  short  by  authority. 

3.  The  rules  for  quantity  are  either  generaly  i.  e.,  applicable  to  most  syl- 
lables, or  s^ecialy  i.  e.,  applicable  to  particular  syllables. 


SECTIOIiT  I. 

GENERAL  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

610.  Rule  I.— Diphthongs  and  Contracted  syllables 
are  long  : 

Haec,  coena,  aura;  alius /or  aliius,  cogo  for  coigo,  occido /or  occae- 
do,  nil  for  nihil. 

1.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a vowel : framcutuSy 
praeustus. 

2.  Uay  ue,  ui,  uOy  and  uUy  are  not  strictly  diphthongs,  and  accordingly 
do  not  come  under  this  rule. 


1 Sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 


288 


KULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


611.  Rule  II. — A vowel  is  long  by  position  before 
/5  or  any  two  consonants : ^ 

Major,  r6xi,  gaza,  mensa,  servus. 

1.  But  one  of  the  consonants  at  least  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as 
the  vowel : ah  rupe^  per  saxa, 

1)  A final  vowel  is  not  usually  affected  by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of 
the  following  word,  except  before  sCy  sp,  sq,  and  si,  where  a short  vowel  is 
rare. 

2)  ^and  U must  never  be  treated  as  consonants  under  this  rule, 2 except 
in  rare  instances  where  u is  so  used  by  Synaeresis.  See  669.  II, 

2.  Before  a mute  followed  by  Z or  72,  a vowel  naturally  short  becomes 
common : dupleXy  dgriy  pdtres. 

1)  In  Greek  words  a vowel  is  also  common  before  a mute  with  if  or  N: 
Tecmessay  cycnus, 

2)  A mute  at  the  end  of  the  first  part  of  a compound  before  a liquid  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  part  makes  the  preceding  vowel  long  by  posi- 
tion : dh-rumpOy  oh  rogo. 

S)  A vowel  naturally  long,  of  course,  remains  long  before  a Mute  and 
Liquid : dceVy  dcris.  ^ * 

3.  Compounds  of  jugiim  retain  the  short  vowel  before  j:  hijugusy 
quadrijugus, 

612.  Rule  III. — A vowel  before  another  vowel,  or 
a diphthong,  is  shoet  by  position  ; 

Pius,  piae,  doceo,  traho,  ^ ^ - 

No  account  is  taken  of  the  breathing  h\  hence  a in  traho  is  treated  as  a vowel 
before  another  vowel. 

Exceptions. — The  following  are  long  before  a vowel : 

1.  A, — (1)  in  the  genitive  ending  ai  of  Dec.  I. : auldiy — (2)  in  proper 
names  in  dius  : Cdius  (Cajus), — (3)  before  iUy  iCy  iOy  iuy  in  the  verb  aio, 

2.  E, — (1)  in  the  ending  H of  Dec.  V.  when  preceded  by  a vowel : diei; 
and  sometimes  in  fideiy  m,  spH, — (2)  in  proper  names  in  eius : Pom- 
peius y — (3)  in  eheu, 

3.  in  the  verb  flOy  when  not  followed  by  er\  flamy  fllhamy  but 
furiy — (2)  in  the  genitive  alius.  In  other  genitives  i in  ius  is  common  in 
poetry,  though  long  in  prose,  but  the  i in  alterius  is  short, — (3)  in  diuSy  af 
umy  for  dlvuSy  ay  umy — (4)  sometimes  in  Diana, 

4.  O, — is  common  in  bhe. 

^ Strictly  speaking,  the  syllable,  and  not  the  vowel,  is  lengthened,  but  the  language 
of  convenience  refers  the  quantity  of  the  syllable  to  the  vowel. 

^ QUy  gUy  and  suy  when  u has  the  sound  of  Wy  are  treated  as  single  consonants. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


289 


5.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a vowel,  because  long  in 
the  original : der^  AeneaSy  Brlseisy  MenelduSy  Troes, 

This  often  occurs  in  proper  names  in — etx,  ia,  cubSy  luSy  doiiy  loUy  diSy  diSy  dius: 
Medea,  Alexandria,  Pencus,  Darius,  Orion. 


SEOTIOX  11. 

SPECIAL  BULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

I.  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 

L 3Ionosyllables, 

613.  Rule  IV.— Monosyllables  are  long : 

a,  da,  te,  se,  ds,  si,  qui,  do,  pro,  tu,  dos,  pes,  sis,  bos,  sQs,  par,  sol. 

Exceptions. — The  following  are  short : 

1.  Enclitics  : que^  ve^  ne^  ce^  te^pse^pte. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  m,  t : aby  dd^  fel^  surriy  U ; except  sdly  sol. 

3.  Auy  hiSy  cisy  covy  63 y fdCy  fcVy  uiy  iSy  ueCy  OS  (ossis),  pevy  Utry  qud  (indef- 
inite), quiSymr;  probably  also  vds  (vadis),  and  sometimes  hic  and  hoc  as 
Nom.  or  Acc.  forms. 

II.  Polysyllables. 

1.  final  vowels. 

614.  Rule  V. — In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable, 
the  endings  a,  e,  and  y ai-e  sliort ; i and  u,  long ; o, 
common : 

Via,  maria,  mare,  misy;  mari,  audl,  fructu,  cornu;  amo,  sermo. 

615.  A final  is  short:  mensd.^  templd.^  bond. 

Exceptions. — A final  is  long, 

1.  In  the  Ablative  : mensdy  hondy  illd. 

V 2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  (rarely  es)  ; Aenedy  Palld. 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Indeclinable  words;  dmdy  curd  ; circdy  juxtdy  antedy 
frustra.  Except  itdy  quid,  ejd,  2.wdputd  used  adverbially. 

616.  E final  is  short : serue.^  urbe.,  rege. 

Exceptions. — E final  is  long, 

- 1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V. : epUbme,  re,  die.  Hence  in  the  compounds — hodie, 
pridie,  postrldUy  qudre. 

2.  In  Greek  plurals  of  Dec.  III. : Tempe,  mieU. 


290 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


3.  In  the  Sing.  Imperative  Act.  of  Conj.  II. ; rmne^  doce.  But  e is  some- 
times short  in  cdvl. 

4.  \\i  fere^  fermiCy  olie,  and  in  Adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II.:  doct^ 
recte.  Except  bene^  matey  infermy  internCy  su^errie, 

617.  TT  final  is  short:  mis^,y  cotjj. 

Exceptions. — Contracted  endings  are,  of  course,  long : = misyi, 

618.  I final  is  long : seroi^  boni^  aicdi. 

Exceptions. — I final  is, 

1.  Common  in  milily  tibiy  sibl,  ihiy  ull.  But 

Observe  compounds  IhldeiUy  Iblque^  ubique^  ublnanXy  iibivlSy  ublcunquCy 
hly  siciibi. 

2.  Short, — (1)  in  msl,  quasi,  cui  (when  a dissyllable), — (2)  in  the  Greek 
ending  si  of  Dat.  and  Abl.  Plur. ; Troasi,—{o)  in  the  Dat.  and  Voc.  Sing., 
which  end  short  in  the  Greek:  Alexi,  Paridi. 

Vtl  follows  the  rule,  but  not  tlie  compounds,  utlnam,  utique,  slciitl, 

619.  U is  long:  cornilj  clictu. 

Exceptions. — I?idu  for  iuy  and  7iSn^  for  non. 

620.  O final  is  common : dmo,  sermb.^  virgo. 

Exceptions. — 0 final  is, 

1.  Long, — (1)  in  Datives  and  Ablatives : servo y illb,  quo,— {fit)  in  Greek 
words,  when  it  represents  a long  Greek  vowel : echo,  Argo, — (3)  in  Adverbs: 
falso y multby  ergOy  quando,  omnino ; except  those  mentioned  under  2 below. 

2.  Short  in  duo,  ego,  octb,  and  the  adverbs  dtb,  illico,  immo,  modo,  and 
its  compounds,  dummodo,  quomodo,  etc. 

2.  FINAL  SYLLABLES  IN  MUTES  OR  LIQUIDS, 

C,  D,  L,  M,  N,  R,  T. 

621.  Rule  VI. — In  words  of  more  than  one  syh 
lable, 

Final  syllables  in  c are  long; 

Final  syllables  in  d,  1,  m,  n,  r,  t,  are  short: 

alec,  illuc ; illud,  consul,  amem,  carmSn,  am5r,  caput. 

Exceptions. — The  following  occur, 

1.  Dome  and  lien. 

2.  M final  with  the  preceding  vowel  is  generally  elided  before  a vowel. 
See  669.  I. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


291 


3.  In  Greek  words,— (1)  en  is  long ; often  also  ariy  in,  on,  yn : Hymen, 
Anchisen,  Titan,  Delphin,  Actaeon,  Phorcyn,—{T)  er  is  long  in  aer,  aether, 
trater,  and  a few  other  words  with  long  ending  in  the  original. 

4.  This  rule  does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  syllables  long  by  previous 
rules. 


3.  FINAL  SYLLABLES  IN  S. 

622.  Hole  VII. — In  words  of  more  than  one  syl- 
lable, the  endings  as,  es,  and  os  are  long ; is,  us,  ys, 
short : 

amas,  mensas,  mones,  nubes,  hos,  serv5s;  avis,  urbis,  bonuSy  servus, 
chlamys. 

623.  final  is  long : Aeneas^  honds^  tllds. 

Exceptions. — As  final  is  short, 

1.  In  anas  and  in  a few  Greek  nouns  in  as  : Arcas,  lampas, 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. : Arcadas,  heroas, 

624.  long:  niches^  moms. 

Exceptions- — Es  final  is  short, 

1.  In  Nominatives  Singular  of  Dec.  TIL,  which  increase  short  in  the 

Gen.:  miles  (itis),  obses  interpres  (etis).  Except  abies,  aries, paries, 

Ceres,  and  compounds  cA  pes  ; as  bipes,  tripes,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  of  es  ; as  ades,pbtes, 

3.  In  Greek  words,— (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Gen. : 
Arcades,  Troades,— (T)  in  a few  neuters  in  es ; Hippomenes,— {2>)  in  a few 
V^ocatives  singular:  Demosthenes, 

625.  Ob  final  is  long : custos,  vh'os. 

Exceptions. — Os  final  is  short, 

1.  In  compos,  impos,  ews. 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek : Delos,  melos, 

626.  Is  final  is  short : dms,  cavils. 

Exceptions. — Is  final  is  long, 

1.  In  Plural  Cases : mensls,  servls,  vobls. 

Hence /om,  gratis,  ingratis. 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  IIL,  increasing  long  in  the  Gen. : Quins  (itisV 
Sdldmls  (inis). 

3.  In  the  Sing.  Pres.  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV.  : audls. 

Mavis,  qulvls,  utervis  follow  the  quantity  of  vis, 

4.  In  the  Sing.  Pres.  Subjiinct.  Act. : possls,  veils,  noils,  malls. 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  Sing,  of  the  Fut.  Perf.  and  of  the  Perf.  Subj. : dmd- 
<sens,  docueris. 


292 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


627.  Us  final  is  short : servus^  bonus. 

Exceptions.— final  is  long, 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Gen. : virtus  (iit^s), 
tellus  (uris). 

But  pdlus  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace.  Ars  P.  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom,  Acc.  and  Voc.  Plur.» 
fructus. 

3.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  the  original : Panthus,  Sapphus,  tripus. 
But  we  have  Oedlp'^s  polypus, 

628.  Yb finalia  short;  chldm^s,,  chelps. 

Exceptions.— Contracted  endings  are  of  course  long : Erynnys  for  Eryn- 
nyes. 


II.  Quantity  in  Increments. 

629.  A word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it 
has  in  any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  nominative  singu- 
lar, and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has 
additional  syllables:  sermo j sermonis,,  sermonibus. 

Sermonis,  having  one  syllable  more  than  sermo,  has  one  increment,  while  ser^ 
monibus  has  two  increments. 

630.  A verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it 
has  in  any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  indicative  active,  and  to  have  as 
many  increments^  cf  conjugation  as  it  has  additional  sylla- 
bles; dmds,,  dmdtis,,  dmdbdtis. 

Amdtls  has  one  increment,  dmabdtis  two. 

631.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the 
penult,  if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with 
the  requisite  number  of  syllables  before  it.  The  increment 
nearest  the  beginning  of  the  word  is  called  the  first  incre- 
ment, and^  those  following  this  are  called  successively  the 
second,,  third,,  fourth  increments.  Thus 

In  ser-mon-i-bus,  the  first  increment  is  mon,  the  second  i',  and  in  morh- 

12  3 

'u-e-ra-mus,  the  first  is  u,  the  second  e,  the  third  ra. 


I.  Increments  of  Declension. 

632,  Kule  VIII. — In  the  Increments  of  Declen- 
eion,  a and  o are  long ; e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short : 

«ietas,  aetatis,  aetatibus  j sermo,  sermonis  j puer,  pufiri,  puerorum ; 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


293 


fulgur,  fulgiiris ; chlamys,  chlamydis ; bonus,  bonarum,  bonOrum ; ille, 
illarum,  illorum ; miser,  miseri ; supplex,  supplicis  ; satur,  saturi. 

Vowels  loDg  or  short  by  position  are  of  course  excepted. 

633.  A in  the  increments  of  declension  is  long : pax^ 
pads  ; bonus^  bonarum ; duo^  duabus. 

Exceptions. — A is  short  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  masculines  in  al  and  ar : Hann^alj  Hannibalis  / Caesar ^ Caesaris. 
Except  Car  and  Nar, 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s preceded  by  a consonant : daps^  ddpis  / ArabSy  Arabis. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a and  asi  ^oema,  ]c>oemdtis  / PallaSy  Palladis. 

4.  Of  the  following (1)  baccar y liqoary  jubar y lary  nectary  par  and  its 
compounds, — (2)  dnaSy  maSy  vas  (vadis), — (3)  saly  faXy  and  a few  rare  Greek 
words  in  ax. 

634.  O in  the  increments  of  declension  is  long;  honor, 
honoris  j bonus,  bonorum  , duo,  duobus. 

Exceptions. — 0 is  short  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  Neuters  in  Beel.  III. : aequor,  aequoris  ; tempus,  temporis.  Except 
OS  (oris),  ddor  (adOris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s preceded  by  a consonant ; inopSy  inopis.  Except  Cy- 
clops and  hydrops. 

3.  Of  arbory  boSy  VepuSy— compos y impoSy  memory  immemory—AlldbroXy 
Cappadox.,  praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials : MdcedOy  MacedAnis. 

5.  Of  many  Greek  nouns, — (1)  those  in  on  rhUory  Hector y (2)  many 
in  o and  on  increasing  short  in  Greek : aedony  aedbniSy — (3)  in  Greek  com- 
pounds in  pus : tripus  (odis),  Oedipus. 

635.  E in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short : pucr, 
pueri  ; liber,  liberi. 

Exceptions. — H is  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  Deck  V.,  except  in  the  forms rUy  and  spei ; as  dieiy  dierumy 
diAbuSy  rebus. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  en^  mostly  Greek:  llcny  lienis y SlreUy  Sirenis.  So  AniOy 
Anienis. 

3.  Of  Celtibery  Ibery  very—hereSy  IbciipleSy  merceSy  quieSy  inquieSy  requieSy 
plebSy — leXy  reXy  dleCy  dleXy  rervex. 

4.  Of  a few  Greek  words  in  es  and  er,  except  der  and  aether;  as  lebeSy 
lebetis  ; crdtery  crateris. 

636.  I in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short : miles, 
militis,  militibus  ; anceps,  ancipitis. 

Exceptions.— /is  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  most  words  in  ix:  rddiXy  radicis  ; fUix,  felicis. 

But  short  in  : appendix,  cdliXy  CiliXyfilix,  forniXy  niXy  piXy  sdliXy  striXy  and  a 
few  others,  chiefly  proper  names. 


294 


KULSS  OP  QUANTITY. 


2.  Of  dis^  glisy  Us,  vis,  Qmris,  Samnis, 

3.  Of  delphin  and  a few  rare  Greek  words. 

4.  For  quantity  of  the  ending  ius,  see  612.  3. 

637.  U in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short:  dux^ 
duds  / arcus,  arcubus  y sdtur,  saturi. 

Exceptions. — U\%  long  in  the  first  increment, 

1.  Of  nouns  in  U3  with  the  genitive  in  uris,  utis,  udis : jus,  juris;  sdlus, 
salutis  ; palus,  paludis.  Except  intercus,  Ligus,  pecus, 

2.  Oi  fur,  frux,  lux,  plus ^ Pollux. 

638.  Y in  the  increments  of  declension  is  short : chid- 
mys.,  chlampdis. 

Exceptions. — This  increment  occurs  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in 
those  in  yn,  ynis,  and  in  a few  others. 


II,  Increments  of  Cojijugation, 

639.  Rule  IX. — In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation 
(630),  a,  e,  and  o are  long ; i and  ii  short : 

amamus,  amemus,  amatote,  regimus,  siimus. 

1.  In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs,  fero,  vblo,  and  their 
compounds,  the  full  form  of  the  second  person,  yfeHs,  volis,  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thus 
mjereham  and  volebam,  the  increments  are  re  and  le. 

2.  In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (254),  the  reduplication 
is  not  counted.  Thus  d^dimus  has  but  one  increment  di. 

640.  A in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long: 
dmdre. 

Exceptions. — A is  short  in  the  first  increment  of  do : dare,  dabam,  cir- 
cumdabam, 

641.  E in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long: 
ncre. 

Exceptions. — E is  short  before  r, 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram,  rim,  ro:  amaveram,  amaverim,  amavero ; rex- 
h^at,  rexerit. 

2.  In  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conj.  III. ; regere, 

regeris,  regerem,  regerer, 

3.  In  the  Put.  ending  beris,  here : amaberis,  or  -ere,  moneberis. 

4.  Rarely  in  the  Perf.  ending  erunt : steterunt  for  steterunt.  See  235, 
also  Systole,  669.  IV. 

642.  O in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  long  w ith' 
out  exception  : monetote^  regitote. 


KULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


295 


643.  I in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  short:  regl- 
tis,  reximus. 

Exceptions. — /is  long,  except  before  a vowel, 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conj.  IV.,  except  Imus  of  the  Perf. : aud/irey 
audlvi,  auditum  ; sentio y sentlmusy  sensimus  (perf.). 

2.  In  Conj.  III.  in  the  first  increment  of  perfects  and  supines  in  ivi  and 
itum  (276.  III.)  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  imus  of  Perf. ; 
trivimus) ; cuplviy  cupiverat j cupitus  ; petlviy  petitus  ; capessivi,  capessiturus,. 
Gavisus  from  gaudeo  follows  the  same  analogy. 

8.  In  the  endings  imns  and  itis  of  Pres.  Subj. : slmus,  sltis ; vUlmus, 
velUis  (239.3). 

4.  In  ndllte,  nollto,  nolitote,  and  in  the  different  persons  of  ibam,  Ibo, 
from  eo  (295). 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  rimus  and  ritis  of  the  Put.  Perf.  and  Perf. 
Subj. ; amaverimus,  amaveritis, 

644.  U in  the  increments  of  conjugation  is  short : mlii- 
mus. 

Exceptions. — 77" is  long  in  the  Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it: 
•volutum,  voluturus,  amaturus. 


III.  Quantity  op  Deeivative  Endings. 

645.  Kule  X. — The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  penult  long : 

I.  abrum,  acrum,  atrum : 

flabrum,  simulacrum,  aratrum. 

II.  edo,  ido,  udo ; ago,  igo,  ugo : 

dulcedo,  cupido,  solitudo ; vorago,  origo,  aerugo. 

III.  ais,  eis,  ois,  otis,  ine,  one — in  patronymics  : 

Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  Minois,  Icariotis,  Nerine,  Acrisione. 

Except  Dandis,  Phocais,  Thebais,  Neriis, 

IV.  eia,  ile ; alis,  elis,  ulis : 

querela,  ovile ; mortalis,  fidelis,  curalis. 

V.  anus,  enus,  5nus,  unus ; ana,  ena,  6na,  una : 

urbanus,  egenus,  patronus,  tribunus;  membrana,  habena,  annona,  13,- 
cflna. 

Except  galbanus. 

VI.  aris,  arus ; orus,  osus ; avus,  ivus : 

salutaris,  avarus ; canorus,  animosus ; octavus,  aestivus. 


296 


EXILES  OP  QUANTITY. 


YII.  5tus,  itus,  utus  ; atim,  itim,  utim ; etum,  eta : 

alatus,  turritus,  cornutus;  singulatim,  viritim,  tributim;  quercetum, 
moneta. 

Except  (1)  dnhUltus^  fortuitus^  gratuitus^  halitus^  hofipltus^  ser'vUus^  spiritus^ 
(2)  affdtim^  stdtim^Vind.  adverbs  in  Uus,  as  dwlnltus;  and  (3)  participles  provided  for 
hy  639. 

YIII.  eni,  ini,  oni, — in  dhtrihutives  : 

septeni,  quini,  octoni. 

646.  Eule  XI. — The  following  deriYatiYe  endings 
have  the  penult  short : 

I.  ades,  iades,  ides, — in  patronymics  : 

Aeneades,  Laertiades,  Tantalides. 

Except  (1)  those  in  Ides  from  nouns  in  eus  and  es  ; as,  Pelldes  (Peleus),  Neo- 
clides (Neocles),  and  (2)  Amphidrdides^  Amy  elides^  Belldes^Corbnldes^  L'pcurgldea, 

II.  iacus,  icus,  idns : 

Corinthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

Except  dmlcus^  anticus^  apricus^  mendicus^  posticus^  pddlcus. 

III.  61us,  cla,  ^lum  j ulus,  nia,  ulum ; culus,  cula,  culum, — in 

diminutives  : 

filiolus,  filiola,  atriolum ; hortulus,  virgula,  oppidulum ; flosculus, 
particula,  munusculum. 

lY.  etas,  itas, — in  nouns  ; iter,  itus, — in  adverbs : 

pietas,  veritas ; fortiter,  divinitus. 

Y.  atilis,  iKs,  bilis, — in  verbals  ; inus, — in  adjectives  denoting  ma- 
terial or  time : 

versatilis,  docilis,  amabilis ; adamantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinus,  diutinus. 

Except  matutinus,  repentinus,  vespertinus. 

1.  His  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long;  elvilis,  hos,  ■ 
tills,  puerilis,  virilis. 

2.  Inus  denoting  characteristic  (325)  usually  has  the  penult  long : canl<, 
nus,  equinus,  marinus. 

647.  Eule  XIT. — The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  antepenult  long: 

I.  aceus,  uceus,  aneus,  arius,  arium,  orius : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  subitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censorius. 

II.  abilis,  atilis,  aticus  : 

.toabilis,  versatilis,  aquaticus. 

. 7 


KULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


297 


ni.  aginta,  iginti,  esimus, — in  numerals : 
nonagiuta,  viginti,  centesimus. 

648.  Eule  XIII. — ^The  following  derivative  endings 
have  the  antepenult  short : 

I.  ibilis,  itudo,  olentus,  ulentus . 

credibilis,  sblitQdo,  vinolentus,  opulentus. 

II.  urio  , — in  desideratives  : 

^urio,  empturio,  partiirio. 


IV.  Quantity  of  Stem  Syllables. 
jT.  In  I^rimitives. 

649.  The  quantity  of  stem-syllables  in  primitive  words, 
when  not  determined  by  the  General  Rules  (Sec.  I.),  is  in 
most  cases  best  referred  to  authority.  Thus, 

In  mater,  cedo,  scribo,  dono,  fitor,  the  first  syllable  is  long  ly  authority, 
while  in  pater,  tego,  mico,  sono,  uter,  it  is  short  ly  authority. 

650.  Eule  XIV. — The  quantity  of  stem-syllables 
remains  unchanged  in  inflection : 

In  DECLENSION, — avis,  avem ; nubes,  nubium. 

In  COMPARISON, — ^levis,  ISvior,  levissimus. 

In  CONJUGATION, — monco,  monebam,  monui. 

1.  Position  may  however  affect  the  quantity:  ager,  dgri  (611,  612); 
possumy  potui y solvOy  solutum  y*  'volvOy  Mutum. 

Here  d becomes  d before  gr.  The  o in  possum^  solro,  and  rolrOy  long  only  by 
position,  becomes  short  before  a single  consonant. 

2.  Gigno  gives  genui,  genitum,  and  pono,  posui,  positum. 

8.  See  also  651,  652. 

651.  Dissyllabic  Perfects  aud  Supines  have  the  first  syl- 
lable long,  unless  short  by  position : 

juvo,  juvi,  jutum ; foveo,  fovi,  fotum. 

1.  These  Perfects  and  Supines,  if  formed  from  Presents  with  the  first 
»y liable  short,  are  exceptions  to  650. 

2.  Seven  Perfects  have  the  first  syllable  short : 

hlibi,  dedi,  fidi,  scidi,  steti,  sttti,  tuli. 


298 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


3.  Ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short : 

citum^  datum^  itum^  litum^  quitum^  rdtum^  rutum^  satum^  star 

turn} 

652.  In  trisyllabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  the  first  two 
syllables  are  short : 

cado,  cecidi ; cano,  cecini ; disco,  didici. 

1.  Caedo  has  cecidi  in  distinction  from  c^cldi  from  cddo. 

2.  The  second  syllable  may  be  made  long  by  position : cucurri^  mdmordU 


II.  In  Derivatives, 


653.  Rule  XV. — Derivatives  retain  the  quantity 
of  their  primitives : 

bonus,  bonitas ; timeo,  timor ; animus,  animosus ; civis,  civicus ; cura, 
curo. 


1.  Frequentatives  in  ito,  have  i short:  clamito.  See  882.  I. 

2.  In  a few  Derivatives  the  short  vowel  of  the  primitive  is  lengthened : 


homo, 

lateo, 

lego, 

macer, 

moveo, 

persono. 


humanus, 

laterna, 

lex,  legis, 

macero, 

mobilis, 

persona, 


rego,  rex,  regis,  rSgula, 

secus,  secius, 

s6deo,  sedes,  sedulus, 

sero,  semen, 

suspicor,  suspicio, 

tego,  tegula. 


8.  In  a few  Derivatives  the  long  vowel  of  the  primitive  is  shortened : 


acer. 

acerbus. 

notum. 

nota, 

dico. 

dicax. 

odi. 

odium. 

duco. 

dux,  diicis. 

sopio. 

sopor. 

fido. 

fides. 

vado. 

vadumj 

luceo, 

moles. 

lucerna, 

molestus. 

vox,  vocis. 

voco. 

This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction : movlhUis^ 
moiVilis^  mdhills^  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same  orthogra- 
phy : as  the  verbs  legis^  Uges^  vlgis^  rSges^  sSdes^  from  the  nouns  legis^  lege.%  regis^ 
reges^  sedes^  or  the  verbs  dUcis^  duces^  fldes^  from  the  nouns  ducis^  duces^  fides. 


III.  In  Compounds. 

654.  Rule  XVI. — Compounds  generally  retain  the 
quantity  of  their  elements : 

ante-fero,  de-fero,  de*duco,  in-aequalis,  pro-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity: 
d6  ligo  {lego),  oc-cido  {cddo),  oc-cido  {caedo). 


1 From  sisto,  but  stdl/um  from  sto. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


299 


2.  L'Tseparable  Prepositions. — Di,  se,  and  ve  are  long,  re  short ; 
ne  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short  : 

diduco,  seduco,  vecors,  reduco,  nedum,  nefas: 

1)  Bi  !s  short  in  dirimo^  disertus, 

2)  Ne  is  long  in  nedum^  iiemo^  nequam^  nequaquam^  iiequidquam^  nequitia^ 
and  neve.  In  other  words  it  is  short. 

3)  Be  is  sometimes  lengthened  in  a few  words:  rsligio^  7‘Uiquiae^  perit ^ repH^ 
lit,  rhuHt,  etc. 

3.  Change  of  Quantity, — In  a few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second 
element  is  changed.  Thus 

Dlco  gives  -dicus ; jurOy  -jero ; notus, -mt us;  nubo,  nuba : male-dicus, 
de-jero,  cog-nitus,  prd-nuba. 

4.  Pro, — Pro  is  short  in  the  following  words : 

Procella,  procul,  profanus,  profari,  profecto,  profestus,  proficiscor,  prd‘ 
fiteor,  profugio,  profugus,  profundus,  pronepos,  proneptis,  protervus,  and 
most  Greek  words,  as  prbpliMa,  generally  in  profundo,  propago,  pr^lno, 
rarely  in  prbeuro,  propello, 

5.  Stem. — When  the  first  element  is  the  stem  of  a word  (338.  III.),  it 
is  often  followed  by  a short  connecting  vowel : 

cal-e-facio,  lab-e-facio,  bell-i-gero,  aed-i-fico,  art-i-fex,  ampl-i-fico,  loc- 
h-pies. 

Before /acio  in  a few  compounds  e is  sometimes  lengthened : liquefacio,  pdlffd^ 
do,  putrefacio,  tepefacio.  The  first  e in  videlicet  is  long. 

6.  I long. — I is  long, — (1)  in  the  first  part  of  compounds  of  dies : mSri- 
dies,  pridie,  postridie,  quotidie,  triduum,  and  (2)  in  the  contracted  forms, 
higae,  trlgae,  quadrigae,  ilicet,  scilicet,  tllicen  for  tidriicen. 

But  i is  short  in  llduum  and  quatriduum, 

7.  0 LONG. — 0 is  long  in  contrO’,  intro-,  retro^,  and  quando-  in  composi- 
tion ; as : controversia,  introduco,  retroverto,  quandoque,  but  quandoquidem. 

8.  Special  Words. — Hodie,  quasi,  qubque,  and  siquidem,  have  the  first 
syllable  short. 


14 


CHAPTEE  II 


VERSIFICATION. 


SECTION  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  SUBJECT 

/ 

655.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  Quantity  and 
Accent.  Syllables  are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups 
called  Feet,  and  feet,  singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into 
Verses. 


I.  Metrical  Feet. 

656.  Feet  are  either  simple  or  compound.  For  con- 
venience of  reference  we  add  the  following  list : 


I.  Simple  Feet. 

Dissyllabic  Feet. 

^ Spondee,  two  long  syllables^ 

— 

LSgSs. 

^ Trochee,^  a long  and  a shorty 

— w 

Legis. 

- Iambus,  a short  and  a long^ 

V — 

ParSns. 

Pyrrhic,  two  shorty 

V \J 

vmr. 

Teisyllabio  Feet. 

v^acty],  a long  and  two  shorty 

mm.  \J 

carminA 

Anapaest,  two  short  and  a longy 

\J  \J  mm 

bSnitSs. 

Tribrach,  three  shorty 

\J  \J  \J 

dominias. 

Molossus,  three  longy 



libertas. 

Amphibrach,  a shorty  a longy  and  a shorty 

^ \J 

Smicus. 

Amphimacer,’  a longy  a shorty  and  a longy 

milites. 

Bacchius,  a short  and  two  longy 

ddlores. 

Antibacchius,  two  long  and  a shorty 

— C=>  M 

pastoris. 

IL  Compound  Feet^ 

These  are  only  compounds  of  the  dissyllabic  feet,  and 
all  have  four  syllables. 


^ Sometimes  called  Chores, 


- Also  cdlod  Orctic» 


METRICAL  FEET. 


301 


Dispondee, 

Ditrochee, 

double  spondee, 
double  trochee. 

praecSptores. 

civitatis. 

Diiambus, 

double  iambus. 

V.  - w - 

amoenitas. 

Proceleusmatic, 

double  pyrrhic. 

V «.y 

memoria. 

Greater  Ionic, 

spondee  and  pyrrhic. 

- - V..  V 

sententia. 

Lesser  Ionic, 

pyrrhic  and  spoiidee. 

— 

adolescens. 

Choriambus, 

trochee  (choree),  and  iambus. 

— V V — 

impatiens. 

Antispast, 

iambus  and  trochee. 

\J  ^ — \J 

verecundus. 

First  Epitrite, 

iambus  and  spondee. 

W 

amaverunt. 

Second  Epitrite,  trochee  and  spondee. 

_ W 

conditores. 

Third  Epitrite, 

spondee  and  iambus. 

- 

auctoritas. 

Fourth  Epitrite, 

spondee  and  trochee, 

O 

ornamenta. 

First  Paeon, 

trochee  and  pyrrhic, 

— w w*  w 

historia. 

Second  Paeon, 

iambus  and  pyrrhic. 

\J  — \J  \J 

amabilis. 

Third  Paeon, 

pyrrhic  and  trochee, 

puerilis. 

Fourth  Paeon, 

pyrrhic  and  iambus, 

W V V — 

celeritas. 

1.  Common  Feet.— -The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 
poets  are, 

1)  The  Dactyl  and  Spondee,  used  in  the  Heroic  Hexameter. 

2)  Less  frequent  the  Iambus,  Trochee,  Tribrach,  Anapaest,  and  Chori- 
ambus. 

2.  Groups. — A Dipody  is  a group  of  two  feet ; a Tripody,  of  three ; a 
Tetrapody,  of  four,  etc.  A Triemimeris  is  a group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a 
foot  and  a half;  Penthemimeris,  of  two  and  a half ; Hephthemimeris,  of  three 
and  a half,  etc. 

v/ 657.  Metrical  Equivalents. — A long  syllable  may 
often  be  resolved  into  two  short  ones,  as  equivalent  to  it  in 
quantity,  or  two  short  ones  may  be  contracted  into  a long 
one.  The  forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents 
of  the  original  forms.  Thus, 

The  Dactyl  becomes  a Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables  into  one 
long  syllable;  the  Spondee  becomes  a Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllable,  or  an 
Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first.  Accordingly  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  the  Ana- 
paest are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 

^ J 658.  Metrical  Substitutes. — In  certain  kinds  of  verse, 
feet  are  sometimes  substituted  for  those  which  are  not  their 
metrical  equivalents.  Thus, 

The  Spondee  is  often  substituted  for  the  Iambus  or  the  Trochee,  though  not 
equivalent  to  either.  See  679,  682. 

^ 659.  Ictus  or  Rhythmic  Accent. — As  in  the  pronun^ 
ciation  of  a word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a special 
stress  of  voice  called  accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  of  a 
metrical  foot  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a special  stress 
of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or  Ictus. 


302 


FEET.  VERSES. 


1.  Simple  Feet. — Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have 
the  ictus  uniformly  on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  for  other  feet.  Thus, 

The  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  ; the  Anapaest 
and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  Equivalents  and  Substitutes.— These  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for 
which  they  are  used.  Thus, 

The  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Dactyl,  i.  e.,  on 
the  first  syllable ; but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Anapaest, 
i.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

1)  Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
equivalents  or  substitutes,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

2)  When  two  short  syllables  of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented  long 
syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus  rests  chiefly  on  the  first  of  these  two.  Thus  the 
Dactyl  used  for  the  Anapaest  takes  the  ictus  on  the  first  short  syllable. 

3.  Compound  Feet. — These  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  of  which  they  are 
composed.  Thus, 

The  Clioriarrihus  (trochee  and  iambus)  takes  the  ictus  of  the  trochee  on  the  first 
8}  liable  and  that  of  the  iambus  on  the  last. 

But  Ionic  feet  are  generally  read  with  the  ictus  on  the  first  long  syllable. 

V/  660.  Arsis  and  Thesis. — The  accented  part  of  each 
foot  is  called  the  Arsis  (raising) ; and  ^Jie  unaccented  part, 
Thesis  (lowering), 

II.  Verses. 

661.  A verse  is  a line  of  poetry,  and  is  either  simple  or 
compound. 

I.  A Simple  verse  has  one  characteristic  or  fundamental 
foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for  the  whole  verse.  Thus, 

Every  Dactylic  Verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable,  because  the  Dac- 
tyl, its  characteristic  foot,  has  it  on  that  syllable. 

II.  A Compound  verse  has  a characteristic  foot  for  each 
member.  See  692. 

662.  Caesural  Pause. — Most  verses  are  divided  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a pause  or  rest  called  the  caesu- 
ra^ or  caesural  pause.  See  673,  674. 

663.  Metrical  Names  of  Verses. — The  metrical 
name  of  a verse  designates, 

I.  The  Characteristic  foot.  Thus, 


1 Caesura  (from  caedOy  to  cut)  means  a cutting;  it  cuts  or  divides  the  verse  into 
parts. 


NAMES  OF  VEESES. 


303 


Dactylic,  Trochaic,  and  lambic  verses  have  respectively  the  Dactyl,  the 
Trochee,  and  the  Iambus  as  the  characteristic  foot. 


II.  The  ISTumher  of  Feet  or  Measures.^  Thus, 


1.  Dactylic  Hexameter  is  Dactylic  verse  of  six  measures. 

2.  Averse  consisting  of  one  measure  YSi  Monometer  j of  two,  Dimeter^ 

of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four.  Tetrameter  ; Pentameter  ; oi  siXy  Hexam^ 

eter. 


III.  The  Completeness  or  Incompleteness  of  the  meas- 
ures. Thus, 


termed  Acatalecticy  when  its  last  measure  is  complete ; 


CatalectiCy  when  it  is  incomplete. 

1)  A Catalectio  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectie  in  syllabam^  in  disylldhnm^  or 
in  trisyllabum^  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables. 

2)  A BracliycatalecUc  verso  wants  the  closing  foot  of  the  last  Dipody, 

3)  An  Acephalous  verse  wants  the  first  syllable  of  the  first  foot. 

4)  A Ilypercatalectic  verse,  also  called  nypermeteVy  has  an  excess  of  syllables. 

2.  The  full  metrical  name  combines  the  three  particulars  enumerated 
under  I.  II.  and  III.,  as  Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalecticy  Dactylic  Trimeter 
Catalecticy  etc. 

\ A 1)  But  for  the  sake  of  brevity  the  term  Acatalectie  is  often  omitted  when  it  can 
bo  done  without  ambiguity. 

. / 2)  Yerses  are  sometimes  known  by  names  which  merely  designate  the  number 
offeet  or  measures.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dac^ 
tylic  Hexameter  AcatalectiCy  and  Senarius  (six  feet),  the  lambic  Trimeter  Acata» 
lectio. 

664.  Special  Names  of  Veeses. — Many  verses  are 
often  designated  by  names  derived  from  celebrated  poeis. 
Thus, 

Alcaic  from  Alcaeus,  Archilocliian  from  Arcuilochus,  Sapphic  from 
Sappho,  GlyconiCy  from  Glycon,  etc. 

Verses  sometimes  receive  a name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  they  were 
applied:  as  HeroiCy  applied  to  heroic  subjects;  ParoemiaCy  to  proverbs,  etc. 

665.  Final  Syllable. — ^The  final  syllable  of  a verse 
may  generally  be  either  long  or  short. 

666.  Stanza. — A stanza  is  a combination  of  two  or 
more  verses  of  different  metres  into  one  metrical  whole. 
See  699,  VOO. 

A stanza  of  two  lines  is  called  a Distich  ; of  three,  a Tristich  ; of  four,  a 
Tetrastich. 

1 A measure  is  a single  foot,  except  in  Anapaestic,  Trochaic,  and  lambic  verses, 
*rhere  it  is  a Dipody  or  Pair  of  feet. 


304 


METRE.  FIGURES  OF  PROSODY. 


667.  Metre. — Metre  signifies  meamre^  and  is  used  to 
designate, 

1.  A Foot  or  Dipody,  as  the  measure,  or  metrical  ele- 
ment of  a verse. 

2.  A Verse  or  Stanza,  as  the  measure  of  a poem. 

668.  Scanning. — Scanning  consists  in  separating  a poem., 
or  verse,  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

III.  Figures  of  Prosody. 

669.  The  ancient  poets  sometimes  allowed  themselves, 
in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liberties  generally 
termed  Figures  of  Prosody.  These  are, 

I.  Synaloepha. — ^This  is  the  elision  of  a final  vowel  or 
diphthong,  or  of  a final  m with  the  preceding  vowel,  before 
a word  beginning  with  a vowel : 

Monstr’  horrend’  inform’  ingens,  for  Monstrum  horrendum  informe 
ingens.  Virg, 

1.  No  account  is  taken  of  hy  as  it  is  only  a breathing  (2.  2).  Hence  Tior- 
rendum  is  treated  as  a word  beginning  with  a vowel. 

2.  Interjections,  o,  heuj  aJiyproliy  etc.,  are  not  elided,  but  in  other  words 
the  elision  generally  takes  place  in  the  best  poets.  But  see  Virg.  Aen.  III.  74. 

8.  Final  e in  the  interrogative  ne  is  sometimes  elided  before  a consonant : 

Pyrrhin’  connubia  servas  ? for  Pyrrhine  connubia  servas  ? Virg. 

4.  The  elision  of  s occurs  in  the  early  poets  : 

Ex  omnibu’  rebus, /or  Ex  omnibus  rebus.  Lucr, 

5.  Synaloepha  may  occur  at  the  end  of  a line  when  the  next  line  be- 
gins with  a vowel.  It  is  then  called  Synapheia, 

IT.  Synaeresis. — This  is  the  contraction  of  two  sylla- 
bles into  one : 

awca,  deinde,  dmnceps,  ildem,  fisdem. 

1.  Synaeresis  is  of  frequent  application.  It  may  unite 

1)  Two  successive  vowels,  as  in  the  examples  above. 

2)  A vowel  and  a diphthong:  modern. 

3)  Two  vowels  separated  by  /i, as  only  a breathing:  pronounced  proi- 

beat. 

2.  In  the  different  parts  orf  desurriy  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  S}"!- 
lable : deesse^d^ty  d^raty  d^rity  etc. : so  ei  in  the  verb  anteeo  : ant^r^y  anM~ 
reniy  antelSy  anteit. 

3.  / and  u before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the 
Bound  of  y and  w : Thus,  dhiete  and  dr^tey  become  dhyUe  and  dryUe  / genua 
and  tenues  become  glnwd  and  tenwes. 


FIGURES  OP  PROSODY.  VARIETIES  OP  VERSE.  305 


III.  Diaeresis. — ^This  is  the  resolution  of  one  syllable 
into  two : 

aurai/or  aurae,  OrphSus  for  Orpheus,  soluendus, /or  solvendus,  silua 
for  silva. 

As  a matter  of  fact  the  Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  divide  any  syllable 
into  two,  and  the  examples  generally  explained  by  diaeresis  are  only  ancient  forms, 
occasionally  used  by  them  for  effect  or  convenience. 

IV.  Systole. — ^This  is  the  shortening  of  a long  syllable: 

tiilSrunt /or  tulerunt,  steterunt /or  steterunt  (235),  vide’n  /orvMesne. 

This  is  arare  poetical  license,  occurring  most  frequently  in  the  final  vowels  and 

difjhthongs,  which  would  otherwise  be  elided.  See  669.  I.  2, 

Y.  Diastole. — ^This  is  the  lengthening  of  a short  syl- 
lable : 

Priamides  for  Priamides. 

1,  This  is  a poetical  license,  used  chiefly  in  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables  in 
the  arsis  of  the  foot  (660).  In  the  latter  case  the  syllable  is  said  to  be  lengthened  by 
the  ictus. 


SECTION  II. 

VARIETIES  OF  VERSE. 

I.  Dactylic  Verse. 

670.  All  Dactylic  Verses  are  measured  by  single  feet 
(663.  II.),  and  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical  equiv- 
alents, Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 

1.  Dactylic  Hexameter. 

671.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  consists  of  six  feet.  The 
first  four  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a Dactyl, 
and  the  sixth  a Spondee  (665). 

The  scale  is,^ 


QuadrupS-  1 dante  pii-  | trem  soni-  | tu  qnatit  j ungiila  | campum.  Virg, 
Arma  vi-  ] rumquS  ca-  | no  Tro-  [ jae  qui  ] primus  ab  | oris.  Virg, 
Infan-  [ dum  re-  | gina  jii-  | b6s  rSno-  ] varS  do-  | lorem.  Virg. 

Illi  2 in-  I ter  s6-  | so  mag-  | na  vi  | brachia  | tollunt.  Virg. 


1 In  this  scale  the  sign  ' marks  the  ictus  (659). 

2 The  final  i of  illi  is  elided  by  Synaloepha  (669). 


S06 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETEE. 


672.  Varieties. — ^The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  ad* 
mits  sixteen  varieties,  produced  by  varying  the  relative 
number  and  arrangement  of  dactyls  and  spondees. 

1.  Illustration. — Thus  a verse  may  contain, 

1)  Five  dactyls  and  one  spondee,  as  in  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  dactyls  and  two  spondees.  These  again  admit  four  different  ar- 
rangements. 

8)  Three  dactyls  and  three  spondees,  as  in  the  second  and  third  example» 
above.  But  these  again  admit  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  dactyls  and  four  spondees.  These  admit  four  different  arrange- 
ments. 

5)  One  dactyl  and  five  spondees,  as  in  the  fourth  example. 

y*  2.  Effect  of  Dactyls. — Dactyls  produce  a rapid  movement  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.  Spondees  produce  a slow  movement  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.  But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive lines  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  dactyls  and  spon- 
dees. 

S.  Spondaic  Line.— The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a spondee  in  the 
fifth  place.  It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a dactyl  as  its 
fourth  foot : 

Cara  de-  | um  sdbd-  | les  mag-  | num  Jovis  | Incre-  | mSntum.  Vir^, 

673.  Caesural  Pause. — The  favorite  caesural  pause 
of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis^  or  in  the  thesis^  of  the 
third  foot : 

Arma-  | tl  ten-  | dunt;  ||  it  | clamor  et  ] agmine  | facto.  Virg, 

Infan-  | dtim,  re-  | gina,  H jii-  | bes  reno-  | vare  do-  | Idrem.  Virg. 

In  the  first  line  the  caesural  pause,  marked  |1 , is  after  tendunt,  after  the  arsis  (/i 
the  third  foot ; and  in  the  second  line  after  regina,  in  the  thesis  {nd  Ju)  of  the  third 
foot. 

1.  Rare  Caesural  Pause. — The  caesural  pause  is  sometimes  in  the 
fourth  foot,  and  then  an  additional  pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second 
foot.  Sometimes  indeed  this  last  becomes  the  principal  pause : 

CrSdide-  | rim;  |I  ver  | illud  e-  | rat,  1|  ver  \ magnus  a-  | gebat.  Virg. 

2.  Bucolic  Caesura. — A pause  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  feet  is  gen- 
erally called  the  bucolic  caesura,  because  often  used  in  pastoral  poetry : 

Ingen-  [ tern  coe-  | Id  soni-  | turn  dedit;  H inde  se-  | cutus.  Virg. 

8.  Faulty  Caesura. — A caesural  pause  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  is 
regarded  as  a blemish  in  the  verse : 

Pulverii-  [ lentus  e-  | quis  furit;  ||  dmnes  | arma  re-  | quirunt.  Virg. 

674.  Caesura  and  Caesural  Pause. — ^The  ending  of 
a word  within  a foot  always  produces  a caesura.  A line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only 
one  of  these  (sometimes  two)  is  mai*ked  by  the  caesural 
pause : 


DACTYLIC  VEESE. 


307 


Arma  vl-  | rumque  ca-  1 no,  I1  Tro-  1 jae  qui  1 primus  ab  1 oris.  Virg, 

1.  Here  there  is  a caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one 
of  these,  that  after  cdno,  has  the  caesural  pause. 

2.  In  determining  which  caesura  is  to  be  marked  by  the  pause  the  reader 
must  be  guided  by  the  sense,  introducing  the  pause  where  there  is  a pause 
of  sense,  or  where  at  least  it  will  not  interfere  with  the  sense. 

3.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  in 
every  hexameter.  A line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme : 

Romae  ] moenia  1 terriiit  [ Impiger  j Hannibal  \ armis.  Unn. 

675.  Last  Word  of  the  Hexameter. — ^The  last  word 
of  the  Hexameter  should  be  either  a dissyllable  or  a trisyl- 
lable. See  examples  above. 

1.  Two  monosyllables  are  not  particularly  objectionable,  and  sometimes 
even  produce  a happy  effect : 

Praecipi*  1 tant  cu-  | rae,  H tur-  1 bataque  | fanerS  | mens  est. 

is  indeed  often  used  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  monosyllable. 

2.  A single  monosyllable,  except  esfy  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  the 
line,  except  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor : 

Farturi-  [ tint  mon-  \ tes,  H nas-  j cStur  | ridicu-  [ lus  mus.  Ilor, 

II,  Dactylic  Pentameter, 

676.  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts 
separated  by  the  caesural  pause.  Each  part  consists  of  two 
Dactyls  and  the  arsis  of  a third.  The  Spondee  may  take 
the  place  of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the 
second : 


Admoni-  | tu  coe-J  pi  |1  fortior  | esse  tu-  \ 6,  Ovid. 

1.  Pentameter. — The  name  I^ntameter  is  founded  on  the  ancient  divi* 
sion  of  the  line  into  five  feet;  the  first  and  second  being  dactyls  or  spondees ; 
the  third,  a spondee  ; the  fourth  and  fifth,  anapaests. 

2.  Elegiac  Distich. — The  Dactylic  Pentameter  is  seldom,  if  ever,  used, 
except  in  the  Elegiac  Distich,  which  consists  of  the  Hexameter  followed  by 
the  Pentameter : 

SemisS-  I pulta  vi-  \ rtim  II  efir-  | vis  fSri-  | untiir  a-  | ratris 
Ossa,  ru-  \ Ino-  1 sas  11  occiilit  \ herba  do-  [ mds.  Ov, 


III  Other  Dactylic  Yerses. 

677.  The  other  varieties  of  dactylic  verse  are  less  im- 
portant, but  the  following  deserve  mention ; 


308  DATYLIC,  ANAPAESTIC,  AND  TROCHAIC  VERSES. 


I.  Dactylic  Tetrameter. — This  consists  of  the  last 
four  feet  of  the  Hexameter : 

Ibimus  1 0 soci-  I I,  comi-  | tesque.  Hor, 

In  compound  verses,  as  the  Greater  Archilochian,  the  tetrameter  in  composition 
with  other  metres,  has  a dactyl  in  the  fourth  place.  See  691.  I. 

II.  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic. — ^This  is  the  Lesser 
Archilochian,  and  is  identical  with  the  second  half  of  the 
Dactylic  Pentameter : 

Arbori-  | busque  co-  | mae.  Hor, 

III.  Dactylic  Dimeter. — ^This  is  the  Adonic,  and  con- 
sists of  a Dactyl  and  Spondee : 

Montis  i-  I mago.  Hor, 

II.  Anapaestic  Verse. 

678.  Anapaestic  verses  consist  of  Anapaestic  dipodies. 

An  Anapaestic  dipody  consists  of  two  Anapaests,  but 
admits  Spondees  or  Dactyls  as  equivalents. 

I.  Anapaestic  Dimeter  consists  of  two  dipodies : 

Venient  • annis  \\  saeciila  • seris. ^ Sen, 

This  is  sometimes  catalectic  (663.  III.  1),  and  has  only  a long  syllable  in  place  of 
the  last  foot.  It  is  then  called  Faroemiac. 

II.  Anapaestic  Monometer  consists  of  one  dipody: 

Data  res  • patriae.  Auson, 

1.  In  Anapaestic  verse  Dactyls  are  used  sparingly,  and  are  generally  followed  by 
Spondees.  Each  dipody  generally  ends  with  a word. 

2.  The  last  syllable  is  not  common,  as  in  most  kinds  of  verse  (665),  but  subject 
to  the  ordinary  rules  of  quantity. 

3.  Anapaestic  verse  does  not  occur  in  the  best  Latin  Poets. 


III.  Trochaic  Verse. 

679.  Trochaic  verses  consist  of  Trochaic  dipodies. 

A Trochaic  dipody  consists  of  two  Trochees,  or  of  a 
Trochee  and  a Spondee ; but  it  admits  the'Tribrach  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Trochee,  and  the  Anapaest,  of  tlie  Spon- 
dee. The  first  foot  has  a heavier  ictus  than  the  second : 


1 In  verses  measured  by  dipodies,  a dotted  line  is  placed  between  the  feet,  a ftln* 
gle  line  between  the  dipodies,  and  a double  line  in  the  place  of  the  caesural  pauso. 


TROCHAIO  VEKSE. 


309 


I.  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Gatalectic, 


680.  This  consists  of  four  Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the 
last  foot  incomplete.  The  caesural  pause  is  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody  admits  no  equiv- 
alents : 


Nulla  I vox  hu-  ] mana  j constat  |1  absquS  j septem  | lltle- 
Rite  I voca-  1 les  vo-  | cavit  I1  quas  ma-  j gistra  [ Graeci-  i a.  Ter.  Mau, 

1.  In  Proper  Ncrnies^  a dactyl  may  be  introduced  in  any  foot  except  the  fourth 
and  seventh. 

2.  The  Proceleusmatic  for  the  Spondee  sometimes  occurs. 

3.  In  Comedy  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalents  occur  in  the  odd  feet,  as  well  as 


in  the  even,  except  in  the  last  dipody. 

4.  The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets  in  its  complete 
form,  i.  e.,  with  eight  full  feet : 

Ipse  : summis  | saxis  • fixus  |i  aspe-  • ris  e-  | visce-  • ratus.  Enn. 


II,  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic. 

681.  This  consists  of  two  Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the 
last  foot  incomplete.  In  Horace  it  admits  no  equivalents 
and  has  the  following  scale, 

i.  V : Aw  I Aw  : i 
Atila  : divi-  | tern  ma-  ; net.  Hor. 

1.  This  is  sometimes  called  Iamt>ie'  Dimeter  Acephalous^  i.  e.,  an  lambic  Dime- 
ter with  the  first  syllable  wanting. 

2.  A Trochaic  Tripody^ — three  Trochees — technically  called  a Trochaic  Dime'- 
ier  Brcechycatalectic^  or  an  Ithyphalicus^  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochian.  See 

«i91.  I. 

3.  For  Sapphic  Verse^  see  691.  IV. 

4.  For  Phalaecian^  see  691.  V. 


IV.  Iambic  Verse. 

682.  lambic  verses  consist  of  lambic  dipodies. 

An  lambic  dipody  consists  of  two  Iambi,  or  of  a Spon- 
dee and  an  Iambus;  but  it  admits  the  Tribrach  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Iambus,  and  sometimes  the  Dactyl  or  the 


IAMBIC  VERSE. 


mo 

Anapaest,  of  the  Spondee.  The  first  foot  has  a heavier 
ictus  than  the  second. 

In  its  full  form  it  has  the  following  scale : 


I,  lambic  Trimeter, 

683.  This  verse,  also  called  Senariusy  consists  of  three 
lambic  Dipodies. 

I.  The  first  dipody  has  the  full  form. 

II.  The  second  admits  no  Anapaest. 

III.  The  third  admits  no  Anapaest  or  Dactyl,  and  in  its  second 
foot,  no  equivalent  whatever. 

IV.  The  Oaesural  Pause  is  usually  in  the  third  foot,  hut  may 
he  in  the  fourth. 

The  scale  is, 


Quid  ob-  i s&ra-  ] tis  |{  au-  f ribus  | fundis  j prices?  Jlor, 

Neptu-  I nus  al-  | to  ||  tun-  : dit  hi-  | bernus  j salo.  Ilor, 

Has  in-  j ter  epii*  | las  H tit  [ jhvat  | pastas  j ovcs.  Bor, 

1.  Proper  Names. — In  proper  names  an  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  any 
foot,  except  the  last,  but  must  be  in  a single  word. 

2.  Horace. — In  Horace  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  the  Iambus  and 
the  Spondee;  their  equivalents,  the  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl  and  Anapaest,  are 
used  very  sparingly.  The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only 
once  in  the  first.  The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

3.  Comedy. — In  Comedy  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its 
equivalents  are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 

4.  Choliambus. — This  is  a variety  of  lambic  Trimeter  with  a Spondee  in 
the  sixth  foot  and  an  Iambus  in  the  fifth : 

Miser  j Catul-  | 16  de-  j sinSs  | inep-  j tire.  Catul. 

Choliambus  means  lame  or  limping  Iambus,  and  is  so  called  from  its  limping 
movement.  It  is  sometimes  called  Scazon  for  the  same  reason,  and  sometimes  ILip~ 
ponacUan,  from  Hipponax,  its  reputed  inventor. 

684.  Iambic  Teimetee  Catalectic. — Tliis  is  the  Iam- 
bic Trimeter  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  But  in  Horace 
the  only  feet  admissible  besides  the  Iambus  are  the  Tri- 


IAMBIC  YEKSE. 


311 


brach  in  the  second  foot  and  the  Spondee  in  the  first  and 
third : 


Toca-  j tfis  at-  | que  non  j voca-  \ tiis  au-  j dit,  Ilor, 


II.  Iambic  Dimeter. 

685.  This  verse  consists  of  two  lambic  Dipodies  with' 
their  usual  equivalents.  But  in  Horace  the  only  feet  ad- 
missible besides  the  Iambus  are  the  Tribrach  in  the  second 
place,  the  Spondee  in  the  first  and  third,  and  the  Dactyl  in 
the  first : ^ 


Qufirdn-  1 t&r  in  i silvis  \ aves.  Ifor, 
Imbris  i nives-  \ que  com-  j parat.  Ilor, 
Ast  ego  I vicis-  | sim  ri-  \ sero.  Ilor. 


1.  Iambic  Dimetee  IIypekmetee  occurs  in  Horace  with  the 
following  scale: 


Pder  I qnis  ex  | aula  | capil-  | lis.  ITor. 

This  is  sometimes  called  the  Alcaic  Enneasyllabic  verse  and  forms  the  third  line 
in  the  Alcaic  Stanza.  See  TOO.  I. 


2.  Iambic  Dimeter  Catalectic  does  not  occur  in  the  pure  Latin  poets. 
Its  scale  is,  _ 


Manu  ! piier  [ loqua-  j ci.  let.  Arb. 


8.  Iambic  Dimeter  Acephalous.— This  name  is  som';times  given  to  the 
Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  (681),  which  is  then  treated  as  lambic  Dimeter 
without  the  first  syllable.  Thus 

Au-  I IS  di-  1 vitem  \ mSnet.  Ilor. 


III.  Iambic  Tetrameter. 

686.  The  lambic  Tetrameter  is  little  used  in  Latin  except  in  Come- 
dy. It  consists  of  four  lambic  Dipodies  with  their  usual  equivalents.  The 
caesural  pause  is  usually  after  the  fourth  foot : 

Quantum  in-  \ telle x-  [ I modo  • senis  H senten-  • tiam  ) d®  nup-  • 
tiis.  Ter, 


312 


IONIC  AND  CHORIAMBIC  VERSES. 


The  Idnib'ic  Tetro.inietct'  Cdtdlectic  belongs  mostly  to  comedy,  but  occurs  also 
Catullus : 

Qu6t  com-  : mddas  \ res  at-  • tuli  ? \\  qu5t  au-  • tern  ade- 1 mi  cu-  • ras.  T^r. 


V.  Ionic  Verse. 

687.  The  Ionic  a Minore  consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.  It  may  be  either  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 


Simiil  tinctos  j Tiberinis  | humeros  la-  ] vit  in  tindis.  IIot\ 

Neque  segni  ] pede  victus.  ITor, 

1.  Horaee  has  this  metre  only  in  one  short  ode  (III.  12).  In  some  edi- 
tions this  ode  consists  entirely  of  Tetrameters  y but  in  others  it  is  arranged 
in  stanzas  of  three  lines ; the  first  two,  Tetrameters,  and  the  third,  a Dimeter. 

2.  In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  subject  to  the  ordi- 
nary rules  of  quantity,  as  in  the  Anapaestic  verse.  See  678.  2. 

8.  The  Ionic  a Majore,  Sotadean  VersCy  scarcely  occurs  in  Latin,  except 
in  Comedy.  In  its  pure  state  it  consists  of  three  Greater  Ionic  feet  and  a 
Spondee,  but  in  Martial  the  third  foot  is  a Ditrochee : 


Has  cam  gemi-  | na  compede  ] dedicat  ca-  | tenas.  Mart, 


VI.  Choeiambic  Verse. 

688.  Choriambic  verses  begin  with  a Spondee  followed 
by  one,  two,  or  three  Choriambi,  and  end  with  an  Iambus. 

lu  Horace  the  Choriambic  verse  uniformly  begins  with  the  Spondee,  but  in  some 
of  the  other  poets  the  Trochee,  the  Anapaest,  or  the  Iambus  occasionally  takes  the 
place  of  the  Spondee. 

689.  A Choriambic  verse  with  one  Choriambus  is 
called  the  Glyconie ; or,  if  catalectic,  the  Pherecratean ; 
with  two,  the  A^clepiadcan ; with  three,  the  Greater  As^ 
clepiadean. 

I.  The  Glyconic  has  the  following  scale  : 

A _ I A . . JL  I V i 

Dongc  I gratus  gram  | tibi.  Eor, 

II.  The  Pherecratean  is  catalectic,  but  otherwise  iden- 
tical with  the  Glyconic.  Its  scale  is, 

A I A V V A I 7 

Vix  da-  I rSrg  cari-  | nae.  llor. 


CHORIAMBIC  VERSE. 


313 


III.  The  Asclepiadean  has  the  following  scale : 


Maece-  1 nas  atavis  11  ^dite  reg-  | ibus.  Eor. 

IV.  The  Greater  Asclepiadean  has  the  following  scale : 

Seu  plu-  1 res  hiemes,  11  seu  tribuit  H Jupiter  ul-  | timam.  Eor, 

This  is  sometimes  called  ChoriamUc  Pentameter  and  sometimes  Choriamhic 
Tetrameter, 

EpichoriambiG  Verse. 

690.  When  a verse  begins  with  a Second  Epitrite  fol- 
lowed by  one  or  two  Choriambi,  and  ends  with  a Bacchius, 
it  is  called  Epichoriambic.  Of  this  there  are  two  important 
varieties : 

I.  The  Sapphic  Verse. — This  consists  of  a Second  Epi- 
trite, a Choriambus  and  a Bacchius : 

Namque  me  sil-  | vS  H lupiis  in  j Sabina.  Eor, 

1.  But  the  Sapphic  verse  may  also  be  measured  as  a Trochaic  Dipody 
followed  by  an  Aristophanic  verse,  i.  e.,  as  composed  of  a Trochee,  a Spon- 
dee, a Dactyl,  and  two  Trochees.  See  691.  IV. 

2.  The  Caesural  Pause  usually  occurs  after  the  fifth  syllable,  as  in  the 
example,  but  sometimes  after  the  sixth. 

3.  Catullus  admits  two  Trochees  in  place  of  the  Epitrite. 

II.  The  Greater  Sa^pphic  Verse. — ^This  differs  from 
the  Sapphic  proper  only  in  introducing  a second  Choriam- 
bus before  the  Bacchius : 


IntSr  aequa-  | les  Squitat,  H Gallica  nec  ] liipatis.  Eor, 
This  is  sometimes  improperly  called  Choriamhic  Tetrameter, 


VII.  Logaoedic  Verse. 

691.  Logaoedic  verses  consist  of  Dactyls,  or  their 
equivalents,  followed  by  Trochees. 

I.  Greater  Archilochian. — ^This  consists  of  a Dactylic 
Tetrameter  (677. 1.)  followed  by  a Trochaic  Tripody.  The 
first  three  feet  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees ; the  fourth, 
a Dactyl ; and  the  last  three,  Trochees  : 


LOGAOEDIC  VERSE. 


614 


Vittie  I summa  bre-  | vis  spem  | nos  vetat,  ||  incho-  \ are  \ longam.  Bor. 
The  caesural  pause  is  between  the  two  members. 


II.  Alcaic  Verse. — This  consists  of  two  Dactyls  fol- 
lowed by  two  Trochees : 

Purphre-  | o vari-  | us  co-  j lore,  Bor. 

III.  Aeistophanic  Verse. — This  consists  of  a Dactyl 
followed  by  two  Trochees : 

i.  V,  ..  I A V : A r 

Cur  nSquS  | mill-  j taris.  Bor. 


This  verse  is  variously  named,  Aristophanio^  Choriambic  Dhneter^  and  Cho- 
riambic  Dimeter  Catalectic. 


IV.  Sapphic  Verse. — ^This  prefixes  to  the  Aristophanic 
a Trochaic  Dipody  consisting  of  a Trochee  and  a Spondee 
(690.  I.).  The  scale  is, 


Namque  j me  sil-  1 va  lupus  | in  Sa-  j bina.  Bor. 

Sftppliic  verse  may  he  classed  at  pleasure  either  with  the  Logaoedic  verses,  as 
here,  or  with  the  Epichoriambic  verses,  as  in  article  690. 1. 


V.  PiiALAECiAN  Verse. — This  consists  of  a Spondee,  a 
Dactyl,  and  three  Trochees : 


Non  est  | vivSrg,  jl  sed  vS*  | lei  e | vita.  Mart. 

This  verse  is  sometimes  called,  from  the  number  of  its  syllables,  Bendecasyllabie., 
of  eleven  syllables.  It  does  not  occur  in  Horace.  In  Catullus  it  sometimes  has  a 
Trochee,  or  an  Iambus,  in  the  first  place. 


VIIL  Miscellaneous  Verses. 

692.  Greater  Alcaic  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  an 
lambic  PentJiemimeTis  and  a pure  Dactylic  Dimeter^  i.  e., 
an  lambic  Dipody,  a long  syllable  and  two  Dactyls : 


VidSs  i ut  al-  I ta  II  stCt  nivb  | candidum 
Sorac-  j t6  nec  | jSm  |1  sfistiiib-  | ant  ouhs.  Bor. 

1.  The  Caesural  Pause  is  usually  between  the  two  members. 

2.  In  Horace  the  first  foot  is  generally  a Spondee. 

3.  This  verse  forms  the  first  and  second  lines  of  the  Alcaic  Stanza.  See 

roo.  I. 


MISCELLANEOUS  VERSES. 


315 


693.  Dactylico-Iambic  Verse. — This  consists  of  a pure 
Dactylic  Penthemimeris  (656.  2)  and  an  lambic  Dimeter 
(685): 


Jussiis  ab-  | Ire  do-  | mum,  H fere-  j bar  In-  | certo  j pede.  Ilor, 

1.  This  verse  is  sometimes  called  Elegiarribus, 

2.  This  verse  and  the  following  compounds— the  lambico-Dactylic  and  the  Pri- 
apeian—'ho.Ye  the  peculiarity  that  the  two  members  of  each  may  be  treated  as  sepa- 
rato lines,  as  the  last  syllable  of  the  first  member  is  common,  as  at  the  end  of  a line. 


694.  Iambico-Dactylic  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  an 
lambic  Dimeter  and  a Dactylic  Penthemimeris^  i.  e.,  of  the 
same  parts  as  the  preceding,  but  in  an  inverted  order : 


Nives-  : que  de-  [ ducunt  j Jovem;  H nunc  mare,  [ nunc  silii-  | ae.  lior. 


1.  This  verse  is  sometimes  called  lanibelegus. 

2.  For  the  final  syllable  of  the  first  member,  see  693.  2. 


695.  Priapeian  Verse. — ^This  consists  of  a Glyconie 
and  a Pherecratean  (689. 1.  II.) : 


Quercus  [ arida  rus-  | tica  H cdufdr-  ] mala  seefi-  ] ri.  Catul. 

1.  In  this  verse,  as  it  appears  in  Catullus,  the  Glyconie  and  the  Pherecratean 
appear  with  such  variations  as  are  allowed  in  that  poet  (688).  Hence  the  Trochee 
quercus  for  the  Spondee,  in  the  example. 

2.  For  the  final  syllable  of  the  first  member,  see  693.  2. 


SECTION'  III. 

THE  VEESIFICATIOH  OF  VIRGIL,  HORACE,  OVID,  AND  JUVENAL, 

696.  Virgil  and  Juvenal. — Virgil  in  his  Eclogues, 
Georgies,  and  Aeneid,  and  Juvenal  in  his  Satires  use  only 
the  Dactylic  Hexameter.  See  671. 

697.  Ovid. — Ovid  uses  the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamor- 
phoses, but  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his  Epistles  and  other 
works.  See  676.  2. 

698.  Horace. — Horace  uses  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epis- 
tles and  Satires,  but  in  his  Lyrics,  i.  e.,  in  his  Odes  and 
Epodes,  he  uses  a great  variety  of  Metre. 


316 


METRES  OF  HORACE. 


699.  Lyrics  of  Horace. — Most  of  the  Odes  and 
Epodes  consist  of  Stanzas  of  two,  three,  or  four  verses ; but 
a few  of  them  consist  entirely  of  a single  kind  of  verse. 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace. 

700.  For  convenience  of  reference  the  following  out- 
line of  the  Lyric  metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 

A.  Stanzas  of  Four  Verses, 

I.  Alcaic  Stanza. — ^First  and  second  verses,  Greater  Alcaics 
(692) ; third,  lambic  Dimeter  Hypermeter  (685.  I.) ; fourth,  Al- 
caic (691.  IL).  __ 


In  thirty-seven  Odes : 1.  9,  16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  84,  35,  37  ; II.  1,  3,  5, 
7,  9,  11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20  j III.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29  ; IV.  4, 
9,  14,  15. 

II.  Sapphic  and  Adonic. — The  first  three  verses,  Sapphics 
(691.  IV.);  the  fourth,  Adonic  (677.  III.). 


In  Twenty-six  Odes:  I.  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38;  II.  2,  4,  6,  8,  10, 
16 ; III.  8,  11, 14,  18,  20,  22,  27 ; IV.  2,  6,  11,  and  Sec.  Hymn. 

III.  AsolepiadEan  and  Glyconio. — The  first  three  verses, 
Asclepiadeans  (689.  III.) ; the  fourth,  Glyconie  (689.  I.). 

1. ) ^ 

3.  ) st 

4. 

In  nine  Odes:  I.  6,  15,  24,  33;  II.  12;  III.  10,  16;  IV.  5,  12. 

IV.  Asolepiadean,  Phepecratean,  and  Glyconio. — The  first 
two  verses,  Asclepiadeans  (689.  III.) ; the  third,  Pherecratean 
(689.  II.) ; the  fourth,  Glyconie  (689.  I.). 


In  seven  Odes  : I.  5,  14,  21,  23 ; III.  7,  13 ; IV.  13. 


METEES  OF  HOEACE. 


317 


B.  Stanzas  of  Three  Verses. 

V.  loNio  A Minoee  (687). — The  first  two  verses,  Tetrameters : 
the  third,  Dimeter. 


In  Ode  III.  12. 


C.  Stanzas  of  Two  Verses. 

VI.  Iambic  Teimeteb  and  Iambic  Dimetee  (683,  685). 

1.  vy  A : V A V/ 


— W V 

w w 


2.  -i- 


W w V V 


In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

YII.  Glyconic  AND  Asclepiadean  (689.  L,  III.). 

1.  i - I 1 - - 

2.  See  lY.  1. 

In  twelve  Odes : I.  3,  13, 19,  36 ; III.  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28 ; IV.  1,  3. 


YIII.  Hexameter  and  Dactylic  Tetrameter  (671 ; 677.  I.). 


In  two  Odes  : I.  7,  28,  and  Epode  12. 

IX.  Hexameter  and  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (671 ; 
677.  II.). 

1.  See  YIII.  1.  , 

2.  A . V I A . . I 1 

In  Ode  IV.  7. 

X.  Hexameter  and  Iambic  Trimeter  (671,  683). 

See  YIII.  1 and  YI.  1. 

In  Epode  16. 

XI.  Hexameter  and  Iambic  Dimeter  (671,  685). 

See  YIII.  1 and  YI.  2. 

In  Epodes  14  and  15. 


318 


ISIETKES  OF  HOKACE. 


XII.  Hexameter  and  Iambico-Dactylio  (6T1,  694). 


1.  See  VIII.  1. 


In  Epode  13. 

XIII.  Iambio  Trimeter  and  Bactylico-Iambio  (683,  693). 


1.  See  VI.  1. 


In  Epode  11. 

XI Y.  Trochaic  Dimeter  Oatalectic  and  Iambic  Trimeter 
Catalectio  (681,  684). 


In  Ode  II.  18. 

XV.  Greater  Archilochian  and  Iambic  Trimeter  Cata- 
BECTIC  (691.  I. ; 684). 


2.  See  XIV.  2. 


In  Ode  I.  4. 

XYI.  Aristophanic  and  Greater  Sapphic  (691.  III. ; 690.  II). 


In  Ode  I.  8. 


D.  Verses  %ised  Smgly, 
XYII.  Asclepiadean  (689.  III.). 


In  three  Odes  : I.  1 ; III.  SO  ; IV.  8. 

XYIII.  Greater  Asclepiadean  (689.  lY.). 


In  three  Odes : I.  11, 18 ; IV.  10. 

XIX.  Iambic  Trimeter  (683).  See  YI.  1. 
In  Epode  17. 


METRES  OP  HORACE. 


319 


701.  Index  to  the  Lyric  Metres  op  Horace. 

The  Roman  numerals  refer 


BOOK  I. 

Odes.  Metres. 

L XVII. 

- n. 

3,  VII. 

4,  XV. 

5,  IV. 

G,  III. 

7,  VIII. 

8,  XVI. 

9,  I. 

10,  II. 

11,  XVIII. 

12,  II. 

13,  VII. 

14,  IV. 

15,  III. 

16,  I. 

IV,  I. 

18,  XVIII. 

19,  VII. 

20,  II. 

21,  IV. 

22,  II. 

23,  IV. 

24,  III. 

25,  II. 

26,  I. 

27,  I. 

28,  VIII. 

29,  I. 

30,  II. 

31,  I. 

82,  II. 

33,  III. 

84,  I. 

35,  I. 

86,  VII. 

37,  I. 

38,  II. 

BOOK  II. 

1,  I. 

2,  II. 

8 I. 


Odes. 

4, 

5, 

6, 
'T, 
8, 
9, 

10, 

11, 

12, 

13, 

14, 

15, 

16, 
IV, 
18, 

19, 

20, 


to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline,  '700. 

Odes.  Metres. 

26,  I. 

27 U 

28,  Yll. 

29,  I. 

30,  XVII. 

BOOK  IV. 

1,  VII. 

2,  II- 

3,  VII. 

4,  I. 

5,  HI. 

6,  II. 

V IX. 

8,  XVII. 

9,  I- 

10,  XVIII. 

11,  II. 

12,  III. 

13,  IV. 

14,  I. 

16 I. 


Metres. 

II. 

I. 

II. 

I. 

II. 

I. 

II. 

I. 

III. 

I. 

I. 
I. 

II. 
I. 

XIV. 

I. 

I. 


BOOK  III. 


6 

I. 

Epodes. 

Metres. 

* 

7,  



iv! 

Q 

TT 

1,  

VI. 



Q 

VTT 

2,  

VI. 



TIT 

3,  

VI. 



1 1 

TT 

4,  

VI. 



1 9 

V 

5,  

VI. 



TV 

6,  

VI. 



^ A. 

TT 

7,  

VI. 



VTT 

8,  

VI. 

^ ‘^7  

TTT 

9,  

VI. 



1 ^ 

T 

10,  

VI. 



TT 

11,  

XIII. 



1 Q 

VTT 

12,  

VIII. 

■Ld,  

90 

TT 

13,  

XII. 

^^7  

91 

T 

14,  

XI. 

^^7  

99 

TT 

15,  

XI. 



OQ 

T 

16,  

X. 

^^7  

C)4 

VTT 

17,  

XIX. 

^^7  

25.  

SECULAR  HYMN, 

II. 

I.  Figuees,  of 

702.  A Figure  is  a deviation  from  the  ordinary/orm, 
construction^  or  signification  of  words. 

Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology 
from  the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  of  Syntax,  and  from  the  ordinary 
significations,  Figures  of  Ehetoric, 

703.  The  Figures  of  Etymology  are  the  following  : 

1.  Aphaeresis  takes  a letter  or  syllable  from  the  beginning  of  a word  : "'st  for  est 

2.  Syncope  takes  a letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a word : virum  for 
virorum,  dixe  for  dixisse, 

8.  Apocope  takes  a letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of  a word  : tun^  for  tune. 

4.  Prosthesis  prefixes  a letter  or  syllable  to  a word:  tetuli  for  tuU. 

5.  Epenthesis  inserts  a letter  or  syllable  in  a word : Alcumma  for  Alcmena, 
dlMnum  for  dlitum. 

6.  Paragoge  adds  a letter  or  syllable  to  a word : dicier  for  did. 

T.  Metathesis  transposes  letters  or  syllables : pistris  for  pristis. 

8.  Antithesis  substitutes  one  letter  for  another : volnus  for  vulnus,  olli  for  illi. 
See  also  Figures  of  Prosody,  669. 

7C4.  The  Figures  of  Syntax  are  the  following  : 

I.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a 
sentence  : 

HSbitSbat  ad  Jovis  {sc.  templum),  He  dwelt  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter. 
Liv.  Abiit,  evasit  {et),  He  has  gone,  has  escaped.  Cic. 

1.  Asyndeton  is  an  ellipsis  of  a conjunction.  See  587.  I.  6 ; 587.  III.  4. 

2.  Zeugma  is  an  ellipsis  which  employs  a single  verb  with  two  subjects  or  ob- 
jects, though  strictly  applicable  to  only  one: 

Pacem  an  bellum  gSrens,  whether  at  peace  (agens)  or  waging  war.  Sail. 

8.  Aposiopesis,  also  called  Reticentia,  used  for  rhetorical  effect,  is  an  ellipsis 
which  leaves  the  sentence  unfinished: 

Quos  ego sed  motos  praestat  componere  fluctus.  Whom  I lout  it  is  Met- 

ier to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Virg. 

4.  Proverbs  are  often  elliptical. 

5.  Ellipsis  of  Facio,  Dico,  Oro.  See  460.  3 ; 602,  II.  3. 

II.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words  : 

Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exire  possent,  There  were  two  ways 
hy  which  ways  they  might  depart.  Caes.  Eurusque  Notusque  ruunt.  Both 
Eurus  and  Notus  rush  forth.  Virg. 

1.  Polysyndeton  is  a pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunctions,  as  in  the  last  example. 

2.  Hendiadys  is  the  use  d two  nouns  with  a conjunction,  instead  of  a noun 
with  an  adjective  or  genitive: 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


321 


Armis  virisque, /(97*  viris  armatis,  with  armed  men,  Tac. 

3.  Anaphoea  is  the  repetition  of  a word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses : 

Me  cuncta  Italia,  me  universa  civitas  consulem  declaravit,  Me  all  Ital/y^  me  the 

whole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  Epiphora  is  the  repetition  of  a word  at  the  end^of  successive  clauses : 

Laelius  navus  erat,  doctus  erat,  Laelius  was  dilige/nt,  was  learned.  Cic. 

5.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  before  successive  nouns,  regu- 
iarly  so  with  et — et : 

Et  in  bellicis  et  in  civilibus  officiis,  hoth  in  military  and  in  civil  offices.  Cic. 

Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  repeated. 

6.  A demonstrative,  pronoun  or  adverb,  id.,  hoc.,  illud.,  sic,  %ta,  is  often  used 
somewhat  redundantly  to  represent  a subsequent  clause.  So  also  quid,  in  quid  censes 
with  a clause : 

Illud  te  oro  ut  diligens  sis,  I ash  you  (that  thing)  to  he  (that  you  be)  diligent,  Cic. 

7.  Pronouns  redundant  with  quidem.  See  440.  1. 

8.  Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet : 

Ut  liceat  permittitur  = licet,  It  is  lawful  (is  permitted  that  it  is,  &c.).  Cic. 

9.  A word  is  often  repeated  for  emphasis. 

10.  Circumlocutions  with  res,  genus,  modus,  and  ratio  are  common. 

III.  Enallage  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech 
for  another,  or  of  one  grammatical  form  for  another  : 

Popiilus  late  rex  (for  regnans),  a people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  exten- 
sively). Virg.  Serus  {sero)  in  coelum  redeas,  May  you  return  late  to  heaven. 
Hor.  Yina  cadis  {vinis  cados)  onerare,  to  fill  thefiasks  with  wine,  \ irg. 

1.  AntimerIa  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  as  in  the  first  two  ex- 
ampl(;s. 

2.  Hypallage  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  example. 

3.  Synesis  is  a construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical 
forms.  See  438.  6 and  461. 

4.  Anacoluthon  is  a want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts 
of  a sentence : 

Si,  ut  dicunt,  omnes  Graios  esse  {Graii  sunt),  if,  as  they  say,  all  are  Greeks.  Cic. 

IV.  Hyperbaton  is  a transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 

Praeter  arma  nihil  Srat  super  {supererat).  Nothing  remained,  except  their 
arms.  Nep.  Valet  atque  vivit  {vivit  atque  valet).  He  is  alive  and  well.  Ter. 

1.  Anastrophe  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  Hysteron  Proteron  is  a transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  second  example. 

3.  .Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a compound  word.  See  523.  2.  2). 

705.  Figures  of  Rhetoric,  also  called  Tropes,  comprise 
several  varieties.  The  following  are  the  most  important. 

I.  Metaphor. — This  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  as- 
signs to  one  object  the  appropriate  name,  epithet  or  action 
of  another : 

Rei  publicae  vulnus  (for  damnum),  the  wound  of  the  repuUic.  Cic. 
Naufragium  fortunae,  the  wreck  of  fortune.  Cic. 

IT.  Metonymy  is  the  use  of  one  name  for  another 
naturally  suggested  by  it : 


322 


APPENDIX. 


Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio)  pugnatum  est,  They  fought  in  an  equal  con- 
test. Liv.  Furit  Vulcanus  {ignis)^  The  fire  rages.  Virg. 

By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect  and  the  effect  for  the  cause; 
the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the  thing 
signified,  etc. : Mars  for  'belhim.,  Vulcanus  for  ignis.,  Bacchus  for  mnum.,  nohilitas 
for  ndhiles^  Graecia  for  Graeci.,  laurea  for  Victoria.,  etc. 

III.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a part  for  the  whole,  or 
of  the  whole  for  a part ; of  the  special  for  the  general,  or 
of  the  general  for  the  special: 

In  vestra  tecta  {vestras  domos)  discedite,  Depart  to  your  homes.  Cic.' 
Statio  male  fida  carinis  {ndvibus)^  a station  unsafe  for  ships.  Virg. 

IV.  Ieoky  is  the  use  of  a word  for  its  opposite  : 

Legatos  bonus  (for  malus)  imperator  vester  non  admisit.  Your  good 
commander  did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.  Liv. 

1.  Enim.,  etenim.,  scilicet.,  videlicet.,  nlmlrum.,  credo,  and  the  like,  are  often 
ironical.  See  503.  3. 

V.  Hypeebole  is  an  exaggeration  : 

Ventis  et  fulminis  ocior  alis,  swifter  than  the  winds  and  the  wings  of  the 
lightning.  Virg. 

VI.  Litotes  denies  something  instead  of  afSrming  the 
opposite  : 

Non  opus  est  = perniciosum  est.  It  is  not  necessary.  Cic. 


II.  Latin  Authoes. 

703.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  embraces  about 
eight  centuries,  from  250  B.  C.  to  550  A.  D.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods  : 

I.  The  Ante-Classical  Peeiod. — From  250  to  81  B.  0.  The 
principal  authors  of  this  period  are ; 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius. 

II.  The  Classical  Peeiod. — This  embraces  the  Golden  and 
the  Silver  age : 

1.  The  Golden  Age. — From  81  B.  G.  to  14  A.  D.  The  principal 
authors  are : 

Cicero,  Nepos,  Horace,  Tibullus, 

Caesar,  hivy,  Ovid,  Propertius. 

Sallust,  Virgil,  Catullus, 

2.  The  Biltcr  Age. — From  14  to  180  A.  D.  The  principal 
authors  are : 


LATIN  AUTHORS.  ROMAN  CALE2^DAR. 


323 


Phaedrus,  The  Plinies,  Quintilian,  Persius, 

Velleius,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  Lucan, 

The  Senecas,  Curtius,  Juvenal,  Martial. 

III.  The  Post-Classical  Period. — This  embraces  the  Brazen 
and  the  Iron  Age : 

1.  The  Brazen  Age, — From  180  to  476  A.D.  The  principal 
authors  are : 

Justin,  Eutropius,  Lactantius,  Claudian, 

Victor,  Macrobius,  Ausonius,  Terentian. 

2.  The  Iron  Age, — From  476  to  550  A.D.  The  principal  au- 
thors are : 

Boethius,  Cassiodorus,  Justinian,  Priscian. 


III.  The  Roman  Calendar. 

707.  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis 
of  our  own,  and  is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months 
in  the  year  and  in  the  number  of  days  in  the  months. 

708.  Peculiarities. — The  Roman  calendar  has  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 

1.  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the 
month,  as  with  us,  but  from  three  ditferent  points  in  the  month  : 

1.  The  Calends,  first  of  each  month  ; 

2.  The  Mones,  fifths — but  the  serentJi  in  March,  May,  July, 

and  October  ; 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth^— hni  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May, 
July,  and  October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  vrere  numbered,  not  for- 
ward, but  backward. 

Hence  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  the  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  month. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the 
day  before  each  was  denoted  by  pridie  Calendas^  Nbnas^  etc. ; the 
second  before  each  by  die  tertio  (not  secundo ; third,  not  second) 
cinte  Calendas^  etc.,  the  third,  by  die  quarto^  etc.,  and  so  on  through 
the  month. 

1.  Numerals.— This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the 
teeond  day  before  the  Calends,  etc.,  as  the  third,  and  the  third  as  the  fourth,  etc., 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first. 
Thus  prldie  ante  Cdlendas  becomes  the  second  before  the  Calends,  die  tertio  ante 
Cdlendas,  the  third,  etc. 

2.  Name  of  Month.— In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an 
adjective  in  agreement  with  Cdlendas,  Nonas,  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdn~ 
udrias,  often  shortened  to,  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan.  or  IV.  ante  Nonas  Jan.  or  with- 
out ante,  as,  IV.  Nonas  Jan.,  the  second  of  January. 


324 


APPENDIX. 


8.  Ante  DiEM.—Instead  of  die-^ante,  ante  diem  is  common,  as,  ante  diem 
quavtum  Nonas  Jan,  for  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan, 

4.  As  Indeclinable  Nouns.— The  expressions  ante  diem—Cal.^  etc.,  prldie 
Cal.,  etc.,  are  often  used  as  indeclinable  nouns  with  a preposition,  as,  ex  ante  diem 

V.  Idus  Oct.,  from  the  11th  of  Oct.  Liv.  Ad  prldie  Nonas  Maias,  till  the  6th  of 
May.  Cic. 


709.  Calendae  for  the  Year, 


Days  of 
the  Month. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
23 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 
29 
80 
31 


March,  May,  July, 
Oct. 


Calendis.^ 

VI.  Nonas.  1 

V. 

IV.  “ 

III. 

Pridie  Nonas. 
Nonis. 

VIII.  Idus. 

VII. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 

Pridie  Idus. 
Idibus. 

XVII.  Calend.2 
XVI. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XII. 

XI. 

X. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VII. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 

Pridie  Calend. 


Jan.  Aug. 
December. 

April,  June, 

Sept.  Nov. 

February. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

IV.  Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

IV.  Nonas. 

III.  ‘‘ 

III. 

III. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

N ONIS. 

Nonis. 

Nonis. 

VIII.  Idus. 

VIII.  Idus. 

VIII.  Idus. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

VI.  “ 

VI. 

VI.  “ 

V.  “ 

V. 

V.  “ 

IV.  “ 

IV. 

IV.  “ 

III. 

IIL 

III.  “ 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Idibus. 

Idibus. 

Idibus. 

XIX.  Calend.-» 

XVIII.  Caleud.2 

XVI.  Calend.2 

XVIII. 

XVII. 

XV. 

XVII.  “ 

XVI. 

XIV. 

XVI.  “ 

XV.  “ 

XIII. 

XV.  , “ 

XIV. 

XII. 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XI. 

XIII. 

XII. 

X. 

XII.  “ 

XI. 

IX. 

XI.  “ 

X. 

VIII. 

X.  “ 

IX. 

VII. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VI. 

VIII.  “ 

VII. 

V.  (VI.)3  “ 

VII.  “ 

VI. 

IV.  (V.)  “ 

VI.  “ 

V. 

III.  (IV.)  “ ^ 

V.  “ 

IV. 

Prid.  Cal  (Ill.Cal.) 

IV.  “ 

III. 

Pridie  Calend. 

III. 

Pridie  Calend. 

(Prid.  (3al.) 

710.  English  and  Latin  Dates. — The  table  (709)  will  fur- 
nish the  learner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date, 
or  the  Latin  expression  for  any  English  date;  hut  in  translating 
Latin,  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the  following  rule : 

I.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Kones  or  Ides,  subtract 
the  number  diminished  by  one  from  the  number  of  the  day  on 
which  the  Nones  or  Ides  fall : 


1 To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc.,  the  name  of  the  month  must  of  course  be  added. 
Before  Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante  is  sometimes  used  and  sometimes  omitted  (708.  III.  2). 

2 The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are  of  course  meant,  as  the  16th  of  March 
for  instance  is,  XVII.  Calendas  Apriles. 

» The  enclosed  forms  apply  to  leap-yea/r. 


ROMAN  CALENDAR.  MONEY. 


325 


VIII.  ante  Idas  Jan.  = 13  — (8  — 1)  = 13  — 7 = 6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following 
month,  subtract  the  number  dim.nished  by  two  from  the  number 
of  days  in  the  current  month : 

XVIII.  ante  Cal.  Feb.  = 31  - (18  — 2)  ==  31  - 16  = 15th  of 
January. 

In  Leap-year  the  24th  and  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before  the 
Calends  of  March,  VI.  Cal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  precisely 
as  if  the  month  contained  as  usual  only  28  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  num- 
bered regularly  for  a month  of  29  days:  F.,  /F,  III.  Cal.  Mart.^  and  prldie  Cal. 
Mart. 

711.  Divisions  of  Day  and  ITight. — The  Eoman  day,  from 
sun-rise  to  sun-set,  and  the  night  from  sun-set  to  sun-rise,  were 
each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve  hours. 

1.  Night  Watches. — The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three 
Roman  hours  each. 

2.  Length  of  Roman  Hour. — The  hour,  being  uniformly  yV  day  or  of  the 

night,  of  course  varied  in  length,  with  the  length  of  the  day  or  night  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year. 


lY.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. 


712.  Coins. — ^The  principal  Roman  coins  were  the 
of  copper,  the  sestertius^  quinarius.^  denarius.^  of  silver,  and 
the  aureus.^  of  gold.  Their  value  in  the  classical  period  was 
as  follows : 


As,  ...... 

Sestertius,  .... 

. 4 

Quinarius,  .... 

8 ‘‘ 

Denarius,  .... 

. 16  “ 

Aureus  = 25  denarii. 

. $4.00. 

I*  As — THE  Unit  op  Money. — The  As  was  originally  the  unit  of  the 
Roman  currency,  and  contained  a pound  of  copper,  but  it  was  diminished 
from  time  to  time  in  weight  and  value  till  at  last  it  contained  only  1/24  of  a 
pound. 

But  whatever  its  weight,  j\  of  the  as  is  always  called  an  uncia,  y\  a seoitans,  y\ 
n quadrans.,  a trims,  a quincunx,  a semis,  /5  a septunx,  y\  a les,  a do- 
drans, if  a dextans,  f i-  a deunx. 

2.  Sestertius,  Quinarius,  and  Denarius. — The  sestertius  contained  ori- 
ginally 2i  asses,  the  quinarius  5,  and  the  denarius  10 ; but  as  the  as  depre- 
ciated in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these  coins  was  increased. 

3.  As — THE  General  Unit  op  Computation. — The  as  is  also  used  as 
the  unit  in  other  things  as  well  as  in  money.  Thus 

1)  In  Weight.— as  is  then  a pound,  and  the  uncia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure.— thQ  as  is  then  a foot  or  a jugerum  (718),  and  the  uncia  is  of 
A foot  or  of  a jugerum. 


326 


APPENDIX. 


8)  In  Interest— as  Is  then  the  unit  of  interest,  which  was  one  per  cent,  a 
month,  i.  e,,  twelve  per  year,  the  uncia  is  month,  i.  e.,  1 per  year,  and  the 

semis  is  1*3  per  month,  i.  e.,  6 per  year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance.— as  is  then  the  whole  estate,  and  the  uncia  of  it : 
heres  ex  asse.,  heir  of  the  whole  estate ; hires  ex  dodrante.^  heir  of 

713.  Computation  of  Money. — ^In  all  sums  of  money 
the  common  unit  of  computation  was  the  sestertius^  also 
called  nummus  ; but  four  special  points  deserve  notice  : 

1.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  de- 
noted by  sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals : 

Quinque  sestertii,  5 sesterces^  viginti  sestertii,  20  sesterces^  diicenti  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces. 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mille  sestertii.,  or 
mille  sestertium. 

III.  In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are 
denoted  either  (1)  by  millia  sestertium  (gen.  plur.),  or  (2)  by  ses- 
tertia : 

Duo  millia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces;  quinque  millia 
sestertium,  or  quinque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces 

With  sestertia  the  distributives  were  generally  used,  as,  llna  sestertia., 
for  duo  sestertia. 

lY  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  ses- 
tertium  with  the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  propei 
numeral  adverb,  decies,  vicies,  etc.  Thus 

DSoies  sestertium,  1,000,000  (10  X 100,000)  sesterces;  Vicies  sestertium, 
2,000,000  (20  X 100,000)  sesterces. 

1 SESTEETICM-In  the  examples  under  IV.,  sestertium  is  treated  and  declined 
as  a neuter  noun  in  the  singular,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plur. 
ot  sestertius,  and  the  fall  expression  for  1,000,009  sesterces  was  DlHes  centerm  mtlha 
sestertium.  CenKna  millia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sssfer- 
Uum  lost  its  force  as  a genitive  plural,  and  became  a neuter  noun  in  the  singular, 

capable  of  declension  ^ x , . i 

2.  Sestertium  Omitted.— Sometimes  sestertium  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the 

numeral  adverb : as,  d^cies^  1,000,000  sesterces. 

3.  Sign  HS. The  sign  HS,  is  often  used  for  sestertii.,  and  sometimes  for  sester- 

tia, or  sestertium : 

Decem  HS  = 10  sesterces  (HS  = sestertii).  Dena  IIS  = 10,000  sesterces  (II3 
= sestertia).  Decies  HS  = 1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  =*  sestertium). 

714  Weight.— The  basis  of  Boman  weights  is  the  Libra, 
also  calle(i4s  or  Pondo,  equal  probably  to  about  11^  ounces  avoir- 
dupois. 

1.  Ounces.— The  Lllra,  like  the  as  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts  called  by 
the  names  given  under  712. 1. 

2.  Fractions  of  OuNCKS.-Parts  of  ounces  also  have  special  names:  \ = semi- 
uncia,  \ = duella,  \ = sicilicus,  J = sextula,  \ = drachma,  = scrupaium, 

vlus. 


WEIGHTS.  MEASURES.  ABBREVIATIONS, 


327 


715.  Dey  Measuee. — The  Modius  is  the  basis,  equal  to  about 
A peck. 

1.  Sextarius.— This  is  ^ modius. 

2.  Parts  of  the  Sextarius. — These  have  special  names : I =■  hemlna,  J-  = ace- 
tabulum, = cyathus. 

716.  Liquid  Measuee. — The  Amphora  is  the  most  conven- 
ient unit  of  the  Koman  liquid  measure,  and  contained  a Roman 
cubic  foot,  equivalent  probably  to  about  seven  gallons,  wine  measure. 

1.  Culeus. — Twenty  amphorae  make  one  Culeus. 

2.  Parts  op  Amphora. — These  have  special  names : I = urna,  | = congius, 

= sextarius,  -gV  = hemina,  = quartarius,  = acetabulum,  5^6  = cyathus. 

717.  Long  Measuee. — The  basis  of  this  measure  is  the  Ro- 
man foot,  equivalent  to  about  11.6  inches. 

1.  Combinations  of  Feet. — Palmipes  = Roman  feet;  cubitus  = ; passus 

= 5;  stadium  = 625. 

2.  Parts  of  Foot.— Palmus  = I foot;  uncia  = y\;  digitus  = yV 

718.  Square  Measure. — The  basis  of  this  measure  is  the 
Jugerum^  containing  28,800  Roman  square  feet,  equivalent  to  about 
six  tenths  of  an  acre. 

The  parts  of  the  jugarum  have  the  same  name  as  those  of  the  As:  uncia  = y\„ 
sextans  = y^^,  etc.  See  712. 1. 


V.  Abbreviations. 


A.  = Aulus. 

Ap.  =:  Appius. 

C.  (G.)  = Caius  (Gaius). 
Cn.  (Gn.)  = Cnaeus 

(Gnaeus). 

D.  = Decimus. 


719.  Marries, 

L.  = Lucius. 

M.  = Marcus. 

M’.  = Manius. 

Mam.  = Mamercus. 

N.  =:  Numerius. 

P.  = Publius. 


Q.  (Qu.)  :=  Quintus. 

S.  (Sex.)  =:  Sextus. 
Ser.  = Servius. 

Sp.  = Spurius. 

T.  = Titus. 

Ti.  (Tib.)  ==  Tiberius. 


720.  Other  Abbreviations, 


A.  D.  = ante  diem. 
Aed.  = aedilis. 

A.  U.  C.  =:  anno  urbis 
conditae. 

Cal.  (Kal.)  = Calendae. 
Cos.  — consul. 

Coss.  consules. 

D.  = divus. 

D.  D.  = dono  dSdit. 
Des.  = designatus. 

D.  M.  = diis  manibus. 
D.  S.  = de  suo. 

D.  S.  P.  P.  ==  de  sua 
pScunia  posuit. 

Eq.  Rom.  — Eques  Ro- 
manus. 

F.  = filius. 


F.  C.  = faciendum  cu- 
ravit. 

Id.  = Idus. 

Imp.  =r  imperator. 

Leg.  = legatus. 

Non.  = Nonae. 

O.  M.  — optimus  max- 
imus. 

P.  C.  = patres  conscrip- 
ti. 

Pont.  Max.  = pontifex 
maximus. 

P.  R.  populus  Ro- 
manus. 

Pr.  = praetor. 

Praef.  = praefectus. 


Proc.  = proconsul. 

Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  == 
quod  bonum,  felix, 
faustumque  sit. 

Quir.  = Quirites. 

Resp.  = res  publica. 

S.  = sSnatus. 

S.  C.  = senatus  con- 
sultum. 

S.  B.  P.  = salutem  di- 
cit plurimam. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.  =:  senatus 
populusque  Roma- 
nus. 

Tr.  Pl.  tribunus  ple- 
bis. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


73 1 . This  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the 
simple  verbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities, 
but  also  of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention. 

But,  in  regard  to  compounds  of  propositions,  two  important  facts 
must  be  borne  in  mind : 

1.  That  the  elements — ^preposition  and  verb— often  appear  in  the 
compound  in  a changed  form.  See  338,  2,  and  341,  3. 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine. 
See  214. 


A. 

Abdo,  ere,  didi,  ditum,  273. 

Ab-igo.  See  ago^  2Y3,  II. 

Ab-jicio.  Seey<5c^o,  273,  II. 

Ab-luo.  See  luo^  280. 

Ab-nuo.  See  annuo^  280. 

Aboleo,  ere,  evi,  itum,  264,  1. 
Abolesco,  ere,  olevi,  olitum,  277. 
Ab-ripio.  See  rapio^  275. 
Abs-con-do.  See  abdo^  273. 
Ac-cendo,  ere,  i,  censum,  273,  III. 
Ac-cido.  See  cddo^  273,  I.  2. 
Ac-cino.  See  cdnOy  273. 

Ac-cipio.  See  cdpio^  273,  II. 
Ac-colo.  See  cdlo^  274. 

Ac-cumbo,  ere,  cubui,  ciibitum,  275. 
Acesco,  5re,  acui,  — , 282. 

Ac-quiro.  See  quaero^  278,  2. 
Acuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Ad-do.  See  abdo^  273. 

Ad-imo.  See  mo,  273,  II. 
Adipiscor,  i,  Sdeptus  sum,  283. 
Ad-61esco.  See  dbdlesco^  277. 
Ad-6rior.  See  drior,  288. 

Ad-spicio.  See  aspicio,  272,  1.  2. 
Ad-sto.  See  sto,  261. 

Af-fero.  See  fero,  292. 

Agnosco.  See  nosco,  278,  3. 
Ag-gredior.  See  gradior,  283. 

Ago,  ere,  egi,  actum,  273,  II. 

Aio,  def,,  297. 

Albeo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Algeo,  ere,  alsi,  — , 269,  I. 

Al-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  221,  2; 
272,  I.  2 ; 275. 


Al-luo.  See  luo,  280. 

Alo,  ere,  alui,  alitum,  altum,  274. 
Amb-igo.  See  ago,  273,  II. 

Ambio,  295,  3. 

Amicio,  ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 

Amo,  205. 

•Amplector,  i,  amplexus  sum,  283. 
Ango,  ere,  anxi,  — , 280. 

Annuo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Apage,  def.,  297. 

Aperio,  ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 

Apiscor,  i,  aptus  sum,  283. 
Ap-pareo.  See  joor^o,  265  ; 301. 
Ap-peto.  Seejoe^o,  278,  2. 
Ap-plico.  ^Qeplico,  260. 

Ap-pono.  SeejooTio,  275. 

Arcesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 
Ardeo,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  269,  I. 
Aresco,  ere,  arui,  — , 282. 

Arguo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Ar-ripio.  See  rdpio,  275. 
A-scendo.  See  scando,  273,  III. 
A-spergo.  See  spargo,  272,  II. 
A-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  272, 

I.  2. 

As-sentior,  iri,  sensus  sum,  288. 
As-sideo.  See  sMeo,  270,  II. 
At-texo.  See  texo,  275. 

At-tineo.  See  teneo,  268. 

At-tingo.  See  tango,  273. 

At-tollo.  See  tollo,  273. 

Audeo,  ere,  ausus  sum,  271. 

Audio,  211. 

Au-fero.  See/^ro,  292. 

Augeo,  ere,  auxi,  auctum,  269, 

II. 

Ave,  def.,  297. 


IISDEX  OF  VERBS. 


329 


B. 

Balbutio,  Ire,  — , 284,  2. 
Batuo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Bibo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 
Blandior,  Iri,  Itus  sum,  230. 


C. 

Cudo,  ere,  cecidi,  cSsum,  273,  I.  2. 
Caecutio,  Ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Caedo,  ere,  cecidi,  caesum,  273, 1.  2. 
Calesco,  Sre,  calui,  — , 282. 

Calveo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Candeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Caneo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Cano,  ere,  cecini,  cantum,  273. 
Capesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 
C2pio,  ere,  cepi,  captum,  222;  273, 
II. 

Carpo,  ere,  si,  tum,  272. 

Caveo,  ere,  cavi,  cautum,  270,  II. 
Cedo,  ere,  cessi,  cessum,  272,  II. 
Cedo,  c?c/.,  297. 

Cello,  obs.  See  excello^  274. 

Ceno,  260,  2. 

Censeo,  ere,  ui,  censum,  268. 

Cerno,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 

Cieo,  ere,  civi,  citum,  269,  1. 

Cingo,  ere,  cinxi,  cinctum,  272. 
Circum-sisto.  See  sisto^  273. 
Clango,  ere,  — , 281. 

Claudo,  ere,  clausi,  clausum,  272,  II. 
Claudo,  ere  (to  he  lame\  — , 281. 
Co-alesco,  ere,  Slui,  alitum,  282. 
Co-arguo.  See  arguo ^ 279. 

Coepi,  c?e/.,  297. 

I Cognosco.  See  nosco,  278,  3. 

Cogo,  ere,  coegi,  coactum.  See  ayo, 
273,  II. 

Col-lldo.  See  laedo ^ 272,  II. 
Col-ligo.  See  %o,  273,  II. 

I Col-luceo.  See  luceo ^ 269. 

Colo,  ere,  ui,  cultum,  274. 

Com-edo.  See  Mo^  291. 
Comminiscor,  i,  commentus  sum, 2 83. 
Com-mbveo,  See  moveOy  270. 
Com-parco  (pereo).  See  parco^  273, 
I.  2. 

; CompSrio,  Ire,  peri,  pertum,  287. 
l Compesco,  ere,  pescui,  — , 275. 

: Com-pingo.  See  pango ^ 273. 


Com-plector,  i,  plexus  sum,  283. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  e vi,  e tum,  264. 
Com-primo.  Seej^remo,  272,  II. 
Com-pungo,  ere,  punxi,  punctum. 

Seejown^o,  273. 

Con-cido.  See  cMo,  273,  1.  2. 
Con-cido.  See  caedo^  273,  I.  2. 
Con-cino.  See  cano,  273. 
Con-cludo.  See  claudo^  272,  II. 
Con-cupisco,  ere,  cupivi,  cupitum, 
282. 

Con-cutio.  See  quatio^  272,  II. 
Con-do.  See  abdo^  273. 

Con-fercio.  See/arcio,  286. 
Con-ficio.  See/acio,  273,  II. 
Confit,  def.y  297. 

Con-fiteor.  See  fateor , 271. 
Con-fringo.  See  frango^  273,  II. 
Congruo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Coniveo,  ere,  nivi,  nixi,  — , 269,  L 
Con-sero.  See  sero,  276. 

Con-sisto.  See  sisto ^ 273. 
Con-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  221, 
2. 

Con-stituo.  See  statuo,  279. 
Con-sto.  See  s^o,  261. 

Consuesco,  297,  I.  2. 

Consulo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 
Con-temno.  See  temno,  281. 
Con-texo.  See  texo,  275. 

Con-tingo.  See  tango,  273  ; 301. 
Con-valesco,  ere,  valui,  valitum,  282, 
Coquo,  ere,  coxi,  coctum,  272. 
Cor-ripio.  See  rapio,  275. 

Cor-ruo.  See  ruo,  279. 

Crebresco,  ere,  crebrui,  — , 282,  II. 
Credo,  ere,  credidi,  creditum,  273. 
Crepo,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Cresco,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 
Cubo,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Cudo,  ere,  cudi,  cusum,  273,  III. 
Cumbo.  See  accumbo,  275. 

Cupio,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  221 ; 278. 
Curro,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  273, 1.2. 


D. 

De-cerpo,  ere,  si,  tum,  272,  I.  1. 
Decet,  impers.,  299. 

De-do.  See  abdo,  273. 

De-fendo,  5re,  i,  fensum,  273,  III. 
De-fetiscor.  See  fatiscor,  283. 


330 


I^^DEX  OF  VERBS. 


De-fit,  def.^  297. 

Dego,  ere,  degi.  See  273,  II. 
Deleo,  ere,  evi,  6tum,  264. 

De'-ligo.  See  %o,  273,  II. 
De-raico.  See  mico^  260. 

Demo,  ere,  dempsi,  demptum,  272. 
De-pango.  See  pango ^ 273. 
De-primo.  Seejoremo,  272,  II. 
Depso,  ere,  ui,  itum,  turn,  275. 
De-scendo.  See  scando^  273,  III. 
De-silio.  See  salio ^ 285. 

De-sipio.  See  sapio ^ 278. 
De-tendo.  See  tendo^  273. 
D6-tmeo.  See  teneo ^ 268. 
De-vertor.  See  verto^  273,  III. 
Dico,  ere,  dixi,  dictum,  272 ; 237. 
Dif-fero.  See /ero,  292. 

Dignosco.  See  woseo,  278,  8. 
Di-ligo.  See  %o,  273,  II. 

Dl-mico.  See  micOy  260. 

Dl-rigo,  ere,  rexi,  rectum,  272, 1. 1. 
Disco,  ere,  didici,  — , 273. 
Dis-crepo.  See  crepoy  260. 
Dis-cumbo.  See  accumhOy  275. 
Dis-pertior.  See  partior y 288. 
Dis-pliceo.  Seejo^ceo,  265. 
Dis-sideo.  See  sec^eo,  270,  II. 
Di-stinguo.  See  stinguo y 281. 
Di-sto.  See  stoy  261. 

Ditesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Divide,  ere,  visi,  visum,  272,  II. 
Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  261. 

Doceo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  268. 

Domo,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Diico,  ere,  duxi,  ctum,  272 ; 237. 
Dulcesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Duresco,  ere,  durui,  — , 282,  11. 


E. 

Edo,  ere,  edi,  esura,  273,  11. ; 291. 
E-do,  ere,  edidi,  editum,  273. 
Ef-fero.  See /ero,  292. 

Egeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

E-licio,  ere,  ui,  itum,  275. 

E-ligo.  See  legOy  273,  II. 

E-mico.  See  micOy  260. 

Emineo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Emo,  ere,  emi,  emptum,  273,  II. 
E-neco,  are,  ui,  turn,  260. 

Eo,  Ire,  Ivi,  itum,  295. 

Esurio,  ire,  — , itum,  284,  2. 


E-vado,  ere,  vasi,  vasum,  272,  II. 
Evanesco,  ere,  evanui,  — , 28^ 
Ex-ardesco,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  282. 
Excello,  ere,  ui  (rare),  — , 274. 
Ex-cludo.  See  claudOy  272,  II. 
Ex-curro.  See  currOy  273,  I.  2. 
Ex-olesco.  See  dhUescOy  277. 
Expedit,  impers. 

Expergiscor,  i,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  iri,  pertus  sum,  288. 
Ex-pleo.  See  compleOy  264. 
Ex-plico.  plicOy  260. 

Ex-plodo.  ^QQplaudOy  272,  II. 
Ex-stinguo,  ere,  stinxi,  stinctum,272. 
Ex-sto.  See  stOy  261. 

Ex-tendo.  See  tendo y 273,  I.  2, 
Ex-tollo.  See  tollo y 273. 


F. 

Facesso,  ere,  ivi,  i,  itum,  278,  2. 
Facio,  ere,  feci,  factum,  221 ; 273, 
II.;  237. 

Fallo,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  273,  1.  2. 
Farcio,  ire,  farsi,  fartum,  farctum, 
286. 

Fari,  def.y  297. 

Fateor,  eri,  fassus  sum,  271. 
Fatisco,  ere,  — , 281. 

Fatiscor,  i,  — , 283. 

Faveo,  ere,  favi,  fautum,  270,  II. 
Fendo,  ohs.  See  defendoy  273,  III. 
Ferio,  ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  292. 
Ferocio,  ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Ferveo,  ere,  fervi,  ferbui,  — , 270,  IIL 
Fido,  ere,  fisus  sum,  283. 

Figo,  ere,  fixi,  fixum,  272,  II. 

Findo,  ere,  fidi,  fissum,  273,  IIL 
Fingo,  ere,  finxi,  fictum,  272,  1. 

Fio,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294. 

Flaveo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Flecto,  ere,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 

Fleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  264. 

Floreo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Floresco,  ere,  florui,  — , 282. 

Fluo,  ere,  fluxi,  fluxum,  279,  1. 
Fodio,  ere,  fodi,  fossum,  221 ; 273,11. 
Forem,  def.y  297,  III.  2. 

Foveo,  ere,  fovi,  fotum,  270,  II. 
Frango,  ere,  fregi,  fractura,  273,  II. 
Fremo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 


INDEX  OP  VEEBS. 


331 


Frendo,  tre,  — , fressum,  fresum, 
272,  II. 

Frico,  are,  ui,  atum,  turn,  260. 
Frigeo,  ere,  frixi  (rare),  — , 269,  I. 
Frondeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Fruor,  i,  fructus,  friutus  sum,  283. 
Fugio,  ere,  fugi,  fugitum,  221 ; 273, 
II. 

Fulcio,  Ire,  fulsi,  fultum,  286. 
Fulgeo,  ere,  fulsi,  — , 269,  I. 
Fulminat,  impers.^  300. 

Fundo,  ere,  fudi,  fusum,  273,  II. 
Fungor,  i,  functus  sum,  283. 

Furo,  ere,  ui,  — , 271. 


G. 

Gannio,  Ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Gaudeo,  ere,  gavisus  sum,  271. 
GSmo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 

Gero,  ere,  gessi,  gestum,  272. 
Gigno,  ere,  genui,  genitum,  274. 
Glisco,  ere,  — , 281. 

Gradior,  i,  gressus  sum,  221 ; 283. 
Grandesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 
Grandinat,  impers.^  300. 

Gravesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 


H. 

Haereo,  ere,  haesi,  haesum,  269,  I. 
Haurio,  Ire,  hausi,  haustum,  haustu- 
rus, hausurus,  286. 

Hebeo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Hisco,  ere,  — , 281. 

Horreo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Hortor,  226. 

Humeo,  ere,  — , 267. 


I. 

Ico,  ere,  ici,  ictum,  273,  III. 

Il-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  221 ; 272, 

I.  2. 

Il-lido.  See  laedo ^ 272,  II. 

Imbuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Immineo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Im-parco.  Seejoarco,  273,  I.  2. 
Im-pertior.  See  partior^  288. 
Im-pingo.  See  panao^  273. 


In-cendo.  See  accendo^  273,  III. 
Incesso,  ere,  ivi,  i,  — , 278,  2. 
In-cido.  See  cddo^  273,  I.  2. 
In-cido.  See  caedo^  273,  I.  2. 
In-crepo.  See  crepo^  260. 

In-cresco.  See  cresco^  277. 
In-cumbo.  See  accumbo^  276. 
In-cutio.  See  quatio,  272,  II. 
Ind-igeo,  ere,  ui,  — . See  ^geo,  266. 
Ind-ipiscor.  See  apiscor,  283. 
In-do.  See  abdo,  273. 

Indulgeo,  ere,  dulsi,  dultum,  269,  II. 
Ineptio,  ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Infit,  def.,  297. 

Ingruo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

In-notesco,  ere,  notui,  282,  II.  1. 
In-61esco.  See  abolesco,  277. 
Inquam,  def,,  297. 

In-sideo.  See  sMeo,  270,  II. 
In-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  221. 
In-sto.  See  sto,  261. 

Intel-ligo.  See  lego,  273,  II. 
Interest,  impers.,  301. 

Inter-nosco.  See  nosco,  278,  3. 
In-veterasco,  ere,  ravi,  ratum,  282. 
Irascor,  i,  — , 283. 

Ir-ruo.  See  ruo,  279. 


J. 

Jacio,  ere,  jeci,  jactum,  221 ; 273,  II. 
Jubeo,  ere,  jussi,  jussum,  269,  I. 
Juro,  260,  2. 

Juvenesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Juvo,  are,  juvi,  jutum,  262. 


L. 

Labor,  i,  lapsus  sum,  283. 

Lacesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 
Lacio,  obs.  See  allicio,  272,  I.  2. 
Lacteo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Laedo,  6re,  laesi,  laesum,  272,  II. 
Lambo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Langueo,  ere,  i,  — , 270,  III. 
Lapidat,  impers.,  300. 

Largior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

LSteo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Lavo,  are,  lavi,  lautum,  lotum,  lava- 
tum, 262. 

Lego,  ere,  legi,  lectum,  273,  II. 


332 


INDEX  OF  VEEBS. 


Libet,  impers,^  299. 

Liceor,  6ri,  itus  sum,  271. 

Licet,  inipers.^  299. 

Lino,  ere,  livi,  levi,  litura,  278. 
Linquo,  ere,  liqui,  — , 273,  II. 
Liqueo,  ere,  liqui  (licui),  270,  III. 
Liquet,  impers.^  299. 

Liquor,  i,  — , 283. 

Loquor,  i,  locutus  sum,  283. 
Luceo,  ere,  luxi,  — , 269,  I. 
Lucescit,  impers.^  300. 

Ludo,  ere,  lusi,  lusum,  272,  II. 
Lugeo,  ere,  luxi,  — , 269,  I. 

Luo,  ere,  lui,  — , 280. 


M. 

Macresco,  ere,  macrui,  — , 282,  II.  1. 
Madeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Madesco,  ere,  mSdui,  — , 282. 
Maereo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Malo,  malle,  malui,  — , 293. 

Mando,  ere,  i,  mansum,  273,  III. 
Maneo,  ere,  mansi,  mansum,  269, 1. 
Maturesco,  ere,  maturui,  — , 282, 
II.  1. 

Medeor,  eri,  — , 271. 

Memini,  def.^  297. 

Mentior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Mereor,  eri,  itus  sum,  271. 

Mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersum,  272,  II. 
Metior,  iri,  mensus  sum,  288. 

Meto,  ere,  messui,  messum,  275,  II. 
Metuo,  ere,  ui,  — , 280. 

Mico,  are,  ui,  — , 260.  ^ 

Miniscor,  obs.  See  comminiscor^ 
283.  ^ 

Minuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Misceo,  ere,  miscui,  mistum,  mix- 
tum, 268. 

Misereor,  eri,  itus  or  tus  sum,  271. 
Miseret,  impers.^  299. 

Mitesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Mitto,  ere,  misi,  missum,  272,  II. 
Molior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Mollesco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Molo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 

Moneo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  207. 

Mordeo,  ere,  momordi,  morsum,  270. 
Morior,  i (iri),  mortuus  sum,  221 ; 
283. 

Moveo,  ere,  movi,  motum,  270,  II. 


Mulceo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  269,  I. 
Mulgeo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  269,  I. 


N. 

Nanciscor,  i,  nactus  sum,  283. 
Nascor,  i,  natus  sum,  28^ 

Necto,  ere,  nexi,  nexui,  nexum,  272, 
II. ; 275,  II. 

Neg-ligo,  ere,  lexi,  lectum.  See 
273,  II. 

Neo,  ere,  nevi,  netum,  264. 
Ne-queo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 
Nigresco,  ere,  nigrui,  — , 282,  II.  1. 
Ningo,  ere,  ninxi,  — , 280. 

Niteo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Nitor,  i,  nisus,  nixus  sum,  283. 
Nolo,  nolle,  nolui,  — , 293. 

Nosco,  ere,  novi,  notum,  278,  3. 
Nubo,  ere,  nupsi,  nuptum,  272. 

Nuo,  ohs.  See  annuo^  280. 
Nupturio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284,  2. 


0. 

Ob-do.  See  ahdo^  273. 
Ob-dormisco,  ere,  dormivi,  dormi- 
tum, 282. 

Obliviscor,  i,  oblitus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mtitesco,  ere,  mutui,  — , 282,  II.  1. 
Ob-sideo.  See  sMeo^  270. 
Ob-s61esco.  See  abolesco,  "2/1^. 
Ob-sto.  See  sto,  261. 

Ob-surdesco,  ere,  surdui,  — , 282. 
Ob-tineo.  See  teneo,  268. 

Oc-cido.  See  cddo,  273,  I.  2. 
Oc-cido.  See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Oc-cino.  See  cano,  273. 

Oc-cipio.  See  capio,  273,  II. 
Occulo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 

Odi,  def.,  297. 

Of-fendo.  See  defendo,  273,  III. 
Oleo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Olesco,  obsolete.  See  abolesco,  277. 
Operio,  ire,  ui,  tum,  285. 

Oportet,  impers.,  299. 

Op-perior,  iri,  pertus,  peritus  sum, 
288. 

Ordior,  iri,  orsus  sura,  288. 
Os-tendo.  See  tendo,  273,  I.  2. 
Ovat,  def.,  297. 


INDEX  OF  VEEBS, 


333 


P. 

Paciscor,  i,  pactus  sum,  283. 
Paenitet,  impers,^  299. 

Palleo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Pando,  ere,  i,  pansum,  passum,  2^73, 
III. 

Pango,  ere,  pepigi,  pactum,  273. 
Pango,  ere,  panxi,  pegi,  panctum, 
pactum,  273. 

Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum, 
273,  I.  2. 

Pareo,  ere,  ui,  Itum,  265. 

Pario,  ere,  peperi,  partum,  221 ; 273. 
Partior,  Iri,  Itus  sum,  288. 

Parturio,  Ire,  Ivi,  — , 284,  2. 

Pasco,  ere,  pavi,  pastum,  276. 
Pateo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Patior,  i,  passus  sum,  229  ; 221 ; 283. 
PSveo,  ere,  pavi,  — , 270,  II. 

Pecto,  Sre,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 
Pel-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  221 ; 

272,  1.  2. 

Pello,  ere,  pepuli,  pulsum,  273,  1.  2. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  270. 
Pendo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  273, 

1.  2. 

Per-cello.  See  excello ^ 274. 
Per-censeo.  See  censeo^  268. 
Per-do,  ere,  didi,  ditum.  See  abdo^ 

273. 

Pergo  {for  per-rigo),  ere,  perrexi, 
perrectum.  See  rego^  272. 
Per-petior.  patior^  283. 
Ter-sto.  See  sto,  261. 

Per-tineo.  See  teneo,  268. 
Pessum-do.  See  do,  261. 

Peto,  Sre,  Ivi,  itum,  278,  2. 

Piget,  impers.,  299. 

Pingo,  ere,  pinxi,  pictum,  272,  1. 
Pinso  (piso),  ere,  i,  ui,  pinsitum, 
pistum,  pinsum,  273,  III. 

Plaudo,  ere,  si,  sum,  272,  II. 

Plecto,  ere,  xi,  xum,  272,  II. 
Plector,  not  used  as  Dep,  See  am- 
plector, 283. 

Pleo,  obsolete.  See  compleo,  264. 
Plico,  are,  avi,  ui,  atum,  itum,  260. 
Pluo,  ere,  i or  vi,  — , 280. 

Polleo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Polliceor,  eri,  itus  sum,  271. 

Pono,  ere,  posui,  positum,  275. 
Posco,  5re,  poposci,  — , 273,  I.  2. 


Pos-sideo.  See  sMeo,  270,  II. 

Possum,  posse,  potui,  — , 290. 

Potior,  iri.  Itus  sum,  288. 

Poto,  are,  avi,  atum,  um,  260, 1 and  2. 
Prae-cino.  See  canx),  273. 

Prae-curro.  See  curro,  273,  I.  2. 
Prae-sideo.  See  sMeo,  270,  II. 
Prae-sto.  See  sto,  261. 

Prae-vertor.  See  verto,  273,  III. 
Prandeo,  ere,  i,  pransum,  270,  III. 
Prehendo,  ere,  i,  hensum,  273,  III. 
Premo,  ere,  pressi,  pressum,  272,  II. 
Prod-igo.  See  ago,  273,  II. 

Pro-do.  See  abdo,  273. 

Proficiscor,  i,  profectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-fiteor.  See  fateor,  271. 

Promo,  ere,  prompsi,  promptum, 
272,  I.  - 

Pro-sum,  prodesse,  profui,  — , 290,“^! 

III.  T 

Pro-tendo.  See  tendo,  273,  I.  2.  — ^ 
Psallo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Piidet,  impers.,  299. 

Puerasco,  ere,  — , 282,  II. 

Pungo,  ere,  pupugi,  punctum,  273. 


Q. 


Quaero,  ere,  quaesivi,  quaesitum, 
278,  2. 

Quaeso,  def,  297. 

Quatio,  ere,  quassi,  quassum,  221 : 
272,  II. 

Queo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 

Queror,  i,  questus  sum,  283. 
Quiesco,  ere,  quievi,  quietum,  277. 


R. 

Rado,  ere,  rSsi,  rasum,  272,  II. 

Rapio,  ere,  rapui,  raptum,  221 ; 275. 

Raucio,  ire,  rausi,  rausum,  286,  II. 

Re-censeo.  See  censeo,  268. 

Re-cido.  See  cado,  273,  I.  2.  ^ 

Re-cido.  See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 

Re-crudesco,  ere,  crudui,  282,  II.  1. 
Red-arguo.  See  arguo,  279. 

Red-do.  See  abdo,  273. 

Re-fello.  fallo,  273,  I.  2. 

Re -fero.  See /ero,  292. 

Refert,  impers.,  301. 

Rego,  ere,  rexi,  rectum,  209 ; 272. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


S3i 


Ro-linquo.  See  linquo^'  213^  II. 
Reminiscor,  i,  — , 283. 

Renideo,  ere,  — , 26Y. 

Reor,  reri,  ratus  sum,  271. 
Re-panio.  See  pango,  273. 
Rl-pa|co.  Bee  parco,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-perio,  Ire,  peri,  perWm,  287. 
^e-sideo.  See  sedeo,  270,  II. 
Re-sipio.  See  sapio,  278. 

Re-sono.  See  sono,  260. 

Re-spergo.  See  spargo,  272,  II. 
Re-tendo.  See  tendo,  273,  I.  2. 
Re-tineo.  See  teneo,  268. 

Re-vertor.  See  verto,  273,  III. 
Re-vivisco,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  282. 
Rideo,  ere,  risi,  risum,  269,  I. 
Ringor,  i,  — ,283. 

Rodp,  ere,  rosi,  rosum,  272,  II. 
Rorat,  impers.,  300. 

Rjlbeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Ru^o,  ^e.  Ivi,  Itum,  278,  2. 

Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  273,  II. 
Ruo,  ere,  rui,  rutum,  ruiturus,  279. 


S. 

Sagio,  Ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Salio,  Ire,  ui  (ii),  tum,  2S5. 

Salve,  def.,  297. 

Sancio,  Ire,  sanxi,  sancitum,  sanc- 
tum, 286. 

SSpil^,  ere.  Ivi,  ui,  — , 221 ; 278. 
Sarcio,  Ire,  sarsi,  sartum,  286. 
Sat-ago.  See  ^go,  273,  II. 

Scabo,  ere,  scabi,  — , 273,  II. 
Scal^do,  Sre,  di,  sum,  273,  III. 
Scindo,  ere,  scidi,  scissum,  273,  III, 
Scisco,  ere,  scl^i,  scitum,  282. 

S^co,  a\e,  ui,  tum,  260. 

Sedeo,  ere,  sedi,  sessum,  270,  II. 
Se-ligo.  See  lego,  273,  II. 

Sentio,  Ire,  sensi,  sensum,  286. 
Sepelio,  Ire,  Ivi,  sepultum,  284. 
Sepio,  Ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 

Sequor,  i,  secutus  sum,  228. 

Sero,  ere,  sevi,  satum,  276. 

SSro,  ere,  serui,  sertum,  274. 

Sido,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Sileo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 

Sisto,  ^re,  stiti,  statum,  273. 

Sitio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284. 


Soleo,  ere,  solitus  sum,  271. 

Solvo,  ere,  solvi,  solutum,  273,  III. 
Sono,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Sorbeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Sortior,  Iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Spargo,  ere,  sparsi,  sparsum,  272,  II. 
Specio,  obs.  See  aspicio,  272. 
Sperno,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  277. 
Splendeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Spondeo,  ere,  spopondi,  sponsum, 
270. 

Squaleo,  ere,  — , 267. 

Statuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Sterno,  ere,  stravi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternuo,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Sterto,  ere,  ui,  — , 275. 

Stinguo,  ere,  — , 281. 

Sto,  are,  steti,  statum,  261. 

Strepo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  275. 

Strideo,  ere,  stridi,  — , 270,  III. 
Strido,  ere,  i,  — , 280. 

Struo,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  1, 
Studeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Stupeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Suadeo,  ere,  si,  sum,  269,  I. 

Sub-do,  ere,  didi,  ditum.  See  abdo, 
273,  I.  1. 

Sub-igo.  See  ago,  273,  II. 

Sub-silio.  See  salio,  285. 

Suc-cedo.  See  cMo,  272,  II. 
Suc-cendo.  See  accendo,  273,  III. 
Suc-censeo.  See  censeo,  268. 
Suc-cido.  See  cado,  273,  I.  2. 
Suc-cido.  See  caedo,  273,  I.  2. 
Suc-cresco.  See  cresco,  277. 

Suesco,  ere,  suevi,  suetum,  277. 
Suf-fero.  See /ero,  292. 

Suf-ficio.  See  facio,  273,  II. 

Suf- fodio.  See  fodio,  273,  II. 
Sug-gero.  See  gero,  272. 

Sum,  esse,  fui,  — , 204. 

Sumo,  ere,  psi,  ptum,  272. 

Superbio,  Ire,  — , 284,  2. 

Sup-pono.  See  275, 1. 

Surgo  {for  sur-rigo),  ere,  surrexb 
surrectum.  See  r^go,  272,  I. 


T. 

Taedet,  impers.  ^ 299. 

Tango,  ere,  tetigi,  tactum,  273. 
Temno,  ere,  — , 281. 


INDEX  OF  yEKBS< 


335 


Tendo,  ^re,  tetendi,  tentum,  tensum, 
273,  1.  2. 

TSneo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  268. 

Tepesco,  ere,  tepui,  — , 282. 
Tergeo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  269,  I. 
Tergo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  272,  IL 
Tero,  ere,  trivi,  tritum,  278. 

Texo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  275. 

Timeo,  ere,  ui,  — . 266. 

Tollo,  ere,  sustuli,  sublatum,  273. 
Tondeo,  5re,  totondi,  tonsum,  270. 
Tono,  are,  ui,(itum),  260. 

Torpeo,  ere,  ui,  — , 266. 

Torqueo,  ere,  torsi,  tortum,  269,  II. 
Torreo,  ere,  torrui,  tostum,  268. 
Tra-do.  See  abdo^  273. 

Traho,  ere,  traxi,  tractum,  272. 
Tremo,  ere,  ui,  — , 274. 

Tribuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  272,  II. 
Tueor,  eri,  tuitus  sum,  271. 

Tundo,  ere,  tutudi,  tunsum,  tusum, 
273, 1.  2. 

Tuor,  for  tueor^  283. 

Turgeo,  ere,  tursi  {rare\  — , 269. 
Tussio,  ire,  — , 284,  2. 

U. 

Ulciscor,  i,  ultus  sum,  283. 

Urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — , 269,  I. 

Uro,  ere,  ussi,  ustum,  272. 

Utor,  i,  usus  sum,  283. 


Y. 

Vado,  ere,  — , 281. 

Yagio,  ire,  ivi,  — , 284. 

Veho,  ere,  vexi,  vectum,  272. 

Vello,  ere,  velli  (vulsi),  vulsum,  273, 

Vendo,  ere,  didi,  ditum,  273. 
Ven-eo.  See  eo,  295. 

Venio,  ire,  veni,  ventum,  287. 
Venum-do.  See  do^  261. 

Vereor,  eri,  veritus  sum,  227 ; 271. 
Vergo,  ere,  — , 281. 

Verro,  ere,  verri,  versum,  273,  III. 
Verto,  ere,  ti,  sum,  273,  III. 

Vertor.  See  devertor,  273,  III. 
Vescor,  i,  — , 283. 

Vesperascit,  impers.,  300. 
Veterasco,  ere,  ravi,  — , 276. 

Veto,  are,  ui,  itum,  260. 

Video,  ere,  vidi,  visum,  270,  II. 
Vieo,  ere,  — , etum,  264,  2. 

Vilesco,  ere,  vilui,  — , 282,  II.  1. 
Vincio,  ire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  286. 
Vinco,  ere,  vici,  victum,  273,  II. 
Vireo,  ere,  ui,  — ,266. 

Viresco,  ere,  virui,  — , 282. 

Viso,  ere,  i,  um,  273,  III. 

Vivo,  ere,  vixi,  victum,  272. 

Volo,  velle,  volui,  — , 293. 

Volvo,  ere,  volvi,  volutum,  273,  IIL 
Vbmo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  274. 

Voveo,  ere,  vovi,  votum,  270,  II. 


IKDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Note. — The  numbers  refer  to  articles^  not  to  pages.  Constr.  — construction;  w. 
— with;  ff,  = and  the  following ; compels.  = compounds;  gen.  or  genit,  = genitive ; 
gend.  = gender;  acc.  or  accus.  = accusative ; aces.  = accusatives ; loc,  or  locat.  = loca- 
tive ; adjs.  — adjectives ; preps.  — prepositions,  etc. 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate 
words  as  may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  ex- 
ceptions as  may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  nu- 
merous exceptions  in  Dec.  III.,  and  in  gender,  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best 
found  under  the  respective  endings,  55-115, 


A SOUND  of,  6 ff.,  15.  Nouns 
j in  «, — ^of  1st  dec.,  48 ; of  3d 
dec.,  55 ; genitive  of,  69 ; gen- 
der, 111;  derivatives  in  «,320, 
6.  in  acc.  sing.,  68  ; changed 
in  compds.,  311,  3.  Ay  quantity 
of, — final,  615;  in  increments  of 
dec.,  633  ; of  conj.,  640. 

Ay  aby  ahsy  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; in 
compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2.  Ay  aby 
absy  w.  abl.,  434,  of  agent,  388, 
in  personification,  414,  6. 
Abbreviations,  719. 

Abhinc y 427. 

Ablative,  formation  of, — in  1st  dec., 
48,  49;  in  2d  dec.  51,  52;  in  3d 
dec.  57  ff.,  62  ff ; in  4th  dec., 
117 ; in  adjs.,  148  ff 
Ablative,  syntax  of,  412-437.  Of 
cause,  manner,  means,  414  ; 
agent,  accompaniment,  414,  5 
and  7.  Of  price,  416.  W.  com- 
paratives, 417.  Of  differ.,  418. 
In  special  constrs.,  419;  385,  5; 
386,  2;  434,  2;  414,  2.  Of 
place,  420  ff  Of  source,  425. 
Of  time,  426.  Of  charac.,  428. 
Of  specification,  429.  Abl.  ab- 
sol.,  431 ; w.  quisquCy  431,  6. 
W.  preps.,  432  ff  Of  gerunds, 
etc.,  566.  Of  supine,  570. 
Absolute,  ablative,  430  ff ; infini- 
tive or  clause,  431,  4. 

AbsquCy  w.  abl.,  434. 

AbstineOy  w.  acc.  and  abl.,  425,  2 ; 
w.  gen.,  409,  4. 


AbvStract  nouns,  39 ; from  adjs., 
319;  from  verbs,  321,  3. 

AbundCy  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

-abus,  for  ^s,  in  1st  dec.,  49. 

Acy  for  quamy  417,  4.  Ac  siy  w, 
subj.,  503,  606. 

Acatalectic  verse,  663,  III.  1. 

Accediiy  constr.,  556,  II.  1. 

Accentuation,  24  ff 

Accidity  constr.,  556,  II. 

AccingOy  constr.,  374,  7. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  414,  7. 

Accomplishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
658,  ly. 

Accusative,  formation  of, — in  3d 
dec.,  67  ff  ; in  adjectives,  148  ff. 

Accusative,  syntax  of,  370-381. — . 
Direct  object,  371  ff. ; cognate, 
371,  1,  3);  w.  other  cases,  371, 
2 ; w.  compds.,  371,  4 ; w.  verbal 
adjs.  and  nouns,  371,  7.  Two 
aces.,  373  ff ; other  constrs.  for, 
374,  3 ; infin.  or  clause,  374,  4 ; 
poetic  acc.,  374,  7.  Subj.  of  in- 
fin., 375.  Agreement,  376.  Ad- 
verbial acc.,  377  ff.  Acc.  of  time 
and  space,  378.  Of  limit,  379, 
poetic  dat.  for,  379,  5.  Of  speci- 
fication, 380.  In  exclam.,  381. 
W.  preps.,  432  ff.  Of  gerunds 
and  gerundives,  565.  Of  supine, 
569. 

Accusing  and  acquitting,  constr.  of 
verbs  of,  410. 

Acephalous  verse,  663,  III. 

-aceus,  adjs.  in,  324. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


337 


Acquiesco^  386,  2. 

Active  voice,  195.  Act.  and  pass, 
constr.,  465. 

Ad,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; in  compds. 
w.  two  accs.,  374,  6 ; w.  dat., 
386.  Ad,  w.  acc.,  433. 

-ades,  in  patronymics,  316 ; quan- 
tity, 646,  1. 

Adhuc  locorum,  396,  2,  4)  (4). 

Adipiscor,  w.  gen.,  409,  3. 

Adjective, — Deci,  of,  147  ff.  Com- 
parison, 160  If.  Numerals,  172 
ff. ; decl.  of,  175  If.  Derivation, 
822  ff.  Comp.,  340.  W.  dat., 
891.  W.  gen.  396,  III.  2;  399. 
W.  abl.,  414,  419.  Agreement, 
438  ff.  W.  the  force  of  nouns, 
clauses,  adverbs,  441  ff.  Use  of 
comparison,  444. 

Admisceo,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Admoneo,  constr.,  410,  3. 

Admonishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
410. 

Adolescens,  compared,  168,  4.. 

Adonic  verse,  677,  III. 

Adulor,  w.  acc.  or  dat.,  385,  3. 

Advantage,  dat.  of,  385. 

Adverbial  acc.,  377. 

Adverbs, — Numeral,  181.  Classes 
of,  304.  Compar.,  305.  Deriva- 
tion, 333  ff.  Composition,  342. 
For  adjs.,  352,  3.  W.  dat.,  392. 
W.  gen.,  396,  III.  4).  As  preps., 
437.  Use,  582;  w.  nouns,  683. 
Negatives,  non,  ne,  haud,  684, 
two  negatives,  585. 

Adversative  conjs.,  310;  687,  III. 

Adversative  sentence,  360. 

Adversus,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Advising,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  658,yi. 

Ae,  sound  of,  9,  16 ; changed  to  i, 
341,  3. 

Aedes,  sing,  and  plur.,  132. 

Aeger,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aemulus,  w.  gen.  or  dat.,  399,  2,  2). 

Aeneas,  decl.  of,  60. 

Aequi  honi  facere,  402,  3. 

Aer,  aether,  acc.  of,  93,  1,  quantity 
of,  621,  3. 

-aeus,  adjs.  in,  326. 

Affatim,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Afficio,  w.  abl.  414,  1,  1). 

Affinis,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Age,  expression  of,  417,  3. 


Agent, — Abl.  of,  w.  a or  ah,  388,  2 ; 
Dat.  of,  388. 

Agreement, — Of  Fred.  Noun,  362  ; 
in  gend.  and  numb.,  362,  1.  Of 
Appositive,  363,  in  gend.  and 
numb.,  363,  1.  Of  Adject.,  438  ; 
w.  clause,  438,  3 ; constr.  accord, 
to  sense,  438,  6 ; w.  pred.  noun 
or  appositive,  438,  7 ; w.  two 
nouns,  439 ; 439,  2 ; w.  part, 
gen.  396,  2,  3).  Of  Pronouns, 
445  ; w.  two  antecedents,  445,  3 ; 
w.  pred.  noun  or  appositive,  445, 
4 ; constr.  accord,  to  sense,  445, 
5;  w.  clause,  446,  7.  Of  Verb, 
460 ; constr.  accord,  to  sense, 
461  ; agreement  w.  Appos.  or 
Pred.  noun,  462 ; w.  comp,  sub- 
ject, 463. 

-ai,  for  ae,  49,  2 ; quant,  of,  612,  1. 

-al,  nouns  in,  63. 

Alcaic  verse,  664 ; 691,  II. ; greater, 
692  ; stanza,  700,  I. 

Alieno,  w.  dat.  425,  2. 

Alienus,  w.  dat.,  891,  1 ; w.  abl., 
891,  2,  3);  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aliquantus,  aliquis,  aliquot,  191  ; 
use  of  aliquis,  455. 

-alis,  adjs.  in,  325. 

Alius, — Decl.  151.  W.  abl.,  417, 
5 ; w.  atque,  ac,  or  et,  459,  2. 
Alius — alius,  469  ; alius — alium, 
w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3. 

Alphabet,  2 ff. 

Alter,— DqA.  161.  Indef,  191,  2; 
alteruter,  161,  4 ; alter — alter, 
459  ; alter — alterum,  v/.  plur. 
verb,  461,  3. 

Altercor,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Alvus,  gender  of,  63. 

Amhi,  amb.,  338,  3. 

Ambo,  decl.  of,  175,  2. 

Amphora,  716. 

Amplius  without  quam,  417,  3. 

An,  annon,  346,  II.  2 ; 526,  2,  2). 

An—aut,  626,  2,  3). 

Anacoluthon,  704,  III.  4. 

Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 
— Tense-signs,  242  ff. ; mood- 
signs,  244  ff. ; personal  endings, 
247. 

Anapaestic  verse,  678. 

Anaphora,  704,  II.  3. 

Anastrophe,  704,  IV.  1. 


338 


INDEX  OF  SIJBJECrrS. 


Animi^  constr.,  S99,  3,  4). 

Answers,  346,  3. 

Anle^  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; w.  dat., 
386.  Ante^  in  expressions  of 
time,  42Y ; w.  acc.,  433. 
Antecedent,  use  of  term,  445,  1 ; 
omitted,  445,  6 ; attracted,  445, 
9.  Clause  as  antecedent,  445,  Y. 
Antequam^  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  523. 
Antimeria,  Y04,  III.  1. 

Antithesis,  Y03,  8. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  325  ff. 

Anxius^  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Aphaeresis,  Y03,  1. 

Apocope,  Y03,  3. 

Aposiopesis,  Y04,  I.  3. 

Appendix,  Y02-Y20. 

Appositive, — Agreement  of,  363  ; in 
gend.  and  numb.,  363,  1.  Subject 
omitted,  363,  2.  Force  of,  363,  3. 
Aptus^  w.  dat.,  391,  1 ; aptus  qui^ 
w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

Apud^  w.  accus.,  433. 

-ar,  nouns  in,  6^ 

ArceOy  w.  dat,  385,  4. 

Archilochian  verse,  664 ; 6YY,  II. ; 
greater,  691,  I. 

Arenae^  locat,  of  place,  424,  3. 
-aris,  adjs.  .in,  325. 

Aristophanic,  691,  III. 

-arium,  nouns  in,  31Y. 

-arius,  nouns  in,  318  ; adjs.  in,  325. 
Arrangement,— Of  Words,  592-602, 
— General  rules,  593  ff.  Effect 
of  emphasis  and  euphony,  594. 
Contrasted  groups,  595.  Kin- 
dred words,  596.  Words  with 
common  relation,  59Y.  Special 
rules,  598  ff.  Modifiers  of  nouns, 
598  ; of  adjs.,  599  ; of  verbs, 
600 ; of  adverbs,  601 ; of  special 
words, — Demon.  Prep.  Conjunct. 
Rel.  Won,  602.  Of  Clauses,  603- 
606, — Clause  as  Subj.  or  Fred., 
603 ; as  Subord.  element,  604 ; 
in  Latin  Period,  605 ; in  compd. 
sentence,  606. 

Arsis  and  Thesis,  660. 

As  and  its  divisions,  Y12. 

-as,  nouns  in,  1st  dec.,  50 ; 3d  dec., 
Y9 ; gend.  of,  105. 

-as,  for  ae  in  gen.,  49  ; in  Greek  acc. 
plur.,  68  ; in  patronymics,  316 ; 
in  adjs.,  326  ; quantity  of,  623. 


Asclepiadean  verse,  689,  III. ; great- 
er, IV. 

-asco,  inceptives  in,  332,  II. 
Asking,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  3Y4  ; 
558,  VI. 

Aspergo^  constr.,  384,  1. 

Aspirated  letters,  4,  3. 

-asso,  assim,  in  fut.  perf.  and  perf. 

subj.,  239,  4. 

Assuesco^  w.  abl.  386,  2. 

Asyndeton,  Y04,  I.  1. 

-atim,  adverbs  in,  334,  2. 

Atque ^ for  quam^  41Y,  4. 

Attraction,  of  pronoun,  445,  4 ; of 
antecedent,  445,  9 ; of  pred.  noun 
or  adj.  after  an  infin,,  54Y.  Subj. 
by  attraction,  52Y. 

Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 

-atus,  nouns  in,  318;  adjs.  in,  323. 
Au^  9,  16 ; changed,  341,  3. 

Audio ^ w.  Pred.  Noun,  362,  2,  (1). 
Audiens^  w.  two  datives,  390,  3. 
Aureus^  the  coin,  Y12. 

Auterriy  place  of,  602,  III. 
Authority,  long  or  short  by,  609,  2. 
Authors,  Latin,  Y06. 

Avidus,  w.  gen.,  399,  2;  w.  dat., 
399,  5 ; w.  acc.  and  prep.,  399,  5. 
-ax,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  92 ; verbals 
in,  328 ; w.  gen.,  399,  2. 

B CHANGED  top,  258. 

j Being  angry,  verbs  of,  w.  dat., 
385. 

Being  distant,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
556,  III. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  386. 
Belli,  constr.,  424,  2. 

Beyie,  compared,  305,  2 ; w.  verbs 
of  buying,  416,  3. 

Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Bibi,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

-bilis,  verbals  in,  328. 

Bonus,  deck,  148;  compar.,  165; 

honi  consulo,  402,  3. 

Bos,  deck  of,  66. 

Brachycatalectic,  663,  III. 

Brazen  age,  Y06,  III. 

-brum,  nouns  in,  320. 

-bs,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  86. 

Bucolic  caesura,  6Y3,  2. 

-Bulum,  nouns  in,  320. 

-bundus,  verbals  in,  328 ; w.  acc. 
3Y1,  Y. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


339 


C SOUND  of,  17  ff.  Nouns  in, 
j 74;  gend..  111. 

(7,  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Caelum^  plur.  caeli^  143,  1. 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  662  ; in 
hexam.,  673  ff. ; in  anapaestic 
verse,  678 ; in  trochaic,  680 ; in 
iambic,  683,  IV. ; 686. 

Calendar,  Roman,  707. 

Calends,  708,  I.  1. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373. 
Caput,  decl.  of,  58;  w.  verbs  of 
condemning,  410,  6. 

Carhasfus,  gend.  of,  63. 

Cardinals,  172, 174 ; decl.  of,  175  ff. 
Cases,  etymology  of, — Endings  of, 
46,  1 ; in  1st  dec.,  48  ; in  2d  dec., 
51,  2 ; in  3d  dec.,  57  ff.  ; in  4th 
dec.,  116;  in  6th  dec.,  120;  gen- 
eral endings,  122.  Greek  cases, 
60,  64, 68.  Cases  of  adjs.,  151-158. 
Cases,  syntax  of,  364-435, — charac- 
terized, 364  ; kindred,  365  ; nom., 
364  ff. ; voc.,  369  ; accus.,  370- 
381;  dat.,  382-392;  gen.,  393- 
411;  abl.,  412-431;  w.  preposi- 
tions, 432-437. 

Catalectic  verse,  663,  III.  1. 

Causa,  gratia,  414,  2,  3). 

Causal  conjunctions,  310,  311 ; 587, 
V. ; 688,  VII. 

Causal  sentences,  360. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  414. 

Cause,  Subj.  of,  617-523, — Rule, 
617,  621;  w.  quum,  518;  qui, 
619  ; quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quan- 
do, 620 ; dum,  donec,  quoad,  522  ; 
antequam,  priusquam,  623. 

Cause,  denoted  by  part.,  578,  II. 
Causing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  658,  IV. 
Cave,  w.  subj.  for  imperat.,  535,  I. 
Caveo,  constr.,  385,  3. 

-ce,  in  pronouns,  186. 

Celo,  constr.,  374,  2 and  3. 

-cen,  compounds  in,  339,  2. 

Certo,  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Certus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Ch,  4,  3 ; sound  of,  11,  1. 

Changes,  euphonic,  26  ff.  ; in  vow- 
els, 27  ff. ; in  consonants,  33  ff. ; 
in  stems,  258. 

Characteristic,  gen.  of,  396,  IV. ; 
abl.  of,  428  ; gen.  and  abl.  distin- 
guished, 428,  4. 


Choliambus,  683,  4. 

Choosing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373. 

Choriambic  verse,  689  ff. 

Cingo,  constr.  of,  374,  7. 

-cio,  derivatives  in,  315,  5. 

Circa,  circiter,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Circum,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; 

compds.,  w.  acc.,  371,  4;  w.  two 
accs.,  374,  6.  Circumdo,  circum- 
fundo, constr.,  384,  1.  Circum, 
w.  acc.,  433. 

Cis,  citra,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Citerior,  compared,  166. 

Citum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Clam,  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clauses,  as  nouns,  gender  of,  42. 
Prin.  and  sub.  clauses,  345, 1 and 

2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  5 ; as 
abl.  absol.,  431,  4;  as  antece- 
dent, 446,  7.  Indirect  questions, 
clauses  w.  infin.,  subj.,  and  w. 
quod,  compared,  564.  Arrange- 
ment of,  603  ff. 

Cognate  accus.,  371,  1. 

Coins,  Roman,  712. 

-cola,  compounds  in,  339,  2. 

Collective  nouns,  39. 

Coins,  gender  of,  63. 

Com,  con  for  cum,  in  compds.,  338, 
2 ; w.  dat.,  386. 

Combined  objects,  354,  3. 

Comitor,  w.  acc.  or  dat.,  386,  3. 

Command,  subj.  of,  487  ff.  Constr. 
of  verbs  of,  386  ; 558,  VI. 

Common  nouns,  39  ; com.  quantity, 
23. 

Commoneo,  commonefacio,  constr., 
410,  3. 

Communis,  constr.,  391,  2,  4) ; 899, 

3. 

Commuto,  constr.  of,  416,  2. 

Comparative  conjs.,  311;  588,  II. 

Comparative  degree,  160  ; wanting, 
167  ; formed  by  magis,  170.  Com- 
paratives w.  gen.,  396,  2,  3)  (2) ; 
w.  abl.,  417;  w.  quam,  417,  1; 
w.  force  of  too,  444,  1 ; before 
and  after  quam,  444,  2 ; w.  quam 
and  the  subj.,  501,  IV. 

Comparative  view,  of  deck,  123  ; of 
conjugation,  240  ff. 

Comparison, — of  adjs.,  160;  modes 
of,  161 ; terminational,  162  ff. ; 
irreg.,  163  ff. ; defect.,  166  ff. ; 


340 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


adverbial,  170.  Use  of,  444  ; in 
adverbs,  444,  4. 

Compleo^  constr.,  410,  7. 

Complex  sentences,  345,  357; 

abridged,  358  if.  Comp,  ele- 
ments, 350;  subject,  352;  predi- 
cate, 354. 

Compos^  157,  2;  w.  gen,  or  abL, 
399,  (3);  419,  III. 

Composition  of  words,  313,  338  ff. 

Compound  nouns, — decl.  of,  125  ff. ; 
composition  of,  339 ; comp,  ad- 
jectives, 340  ; verbs,  341 ; prin. 
parts  of,  214;  comp,  adverbs, 
342.  Comp,  sentences,  345,  360 ; 
abridged,  361.  Com.  subject, 
predicate,  modifier,  361,  1-3. 
Compounds  of  preps,  w.  acc., 
371,  4 ; w.  two  accs.,  374,  6. 

Computation  of  money,  713, 

Con^  see  com. 

Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs., 
374. 

Concedo.,  constr,,  551,  II.  2, 

Concession,  subj.  of,  514  ff. ; parti- 
ciple, 578,  IV. 

Concessive  conjunctions,  311  ; 588 

IV. 

Condemning,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
410,  5. 

Condition, — conjunctions  of,  311, 
588.  Subj,  of,  502;  force  of 
tenses,  504  ; w.  moc?o,  dum- 
modo., 505  ; ac  si,  ut  si,  etc.,  506 ; 
si,  nisi,  etc.,  507  ff. ; si  omitted, 
503,  1 ; condition  supplied,  503, 
2 ; first  form,  508  ; second,  509  ; 
third,  510;  mixed  forms,  611, 
512.  Condition  in  relative 
clauses,  613  ; in  oratio  obliqua, 
532,  2 and  3 ; denoted  by  parti- 
ciple, 678,  III. 

Conditional  sentences,  502  ff. 

Confido,  w.  dat.,  385, 1 ; w.  abl.,  419. 

Conjugation,  200  ff, ; of  sum,  204. 
First  conj.,  205  ff.,  259  ff. ; sec- 
ond, 207  ff.,  264  ff. ; third,  209  ff., 
272  ff.;  fourth,  211  ff.,  284  ff. ; 
of  verbs  in  io  of  the  3d  conj.,  221. 
Periphrastic,  231  ff.  Contrac- 
tions and  peculiarities,  234  ff. 
Comparative  view  of  conj.,  240. 
Conj.  of  irreg.  verbs,  289  ff. ; of 
defect,  297  ; of  impersonal,  298  ff. 


Conjunctions,  303  ; coordinate,  use 
of,  587  ; subordinate,  use  of,  688. 
Place  of,  in  sentence,  602,  III. 
Conscius,  w.  gen.,  399,(2);  w.  abl., 
399,  6 ; w.  gen.  and  dat,  399,  6. 
Conscius  mihi  sum,  constr.,  551,  3. 
Consecutive  conjunctions,  311,  688. 
Consonants,  3,  I. ; double,  4,  2 ; 
sounds  of,  10  ff,  17.  Changes 
in,  33  ff. 

Consors,  w.  gen.,  399  (3). 

Constituo,  constr,,  558,  II. 
Consuesco,  w.  abl.,  386,  2. 
Consuetudo,  consuetudinis  est,  con- 
str., 656,  I.  1. 

Consulo,  const.,  386,  3, 

Consultus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2), 
Contentus,  w,  abl.,  419,  IV, 
Continental  pronunciation,  19, 
Contingit,  constr,,  556,  IL 
Contra,  w.  accus.,  433, 

Contracted  syllables,  quantity  of, 
610. 

Contractions,  in  conj.,  234  ff. 
Contrarius,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Convicting,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410. 
Coordinate  conjunctions,  309. 
Copulative  conjunctions,  310,  687. 

CopuL  sentences,  360. 

Coram,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Countries,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
-cnrni,  nouns  in,  320. 

Cuicuimodi,  187,  6. 

Cujas,  185,  3. 

Cujus,  186,  3 ; cujusmodi,  cujus- 
cumquemodi,  187,  6. 

-culum,  nouns  in,  320. 

-culus,  cula,  culum,  nouns  in, 
315  ; adjs.  in,  327. 

Cum,  appended,  184,  9;  187,  3; 
cum,  com,  in  compds.,  338,  2. 
Cum,  w.  abl.,  434. 

-eundus,  verbals  in,  328. 

Cuncti,  omnes,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  2, 
3). 

Cupidus,  w.  gen.,  399,  2. 

Cupiens,  idiomatic  use  of  dat.,  387, 

3. 

Cupio,  constr.,  651,  II.  1 and  2. 

D DROPPED  before  s,  36  ; quan- 
) tity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Dactylic  verse,  670  ff.  Dactylico- 
iambic,  693. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


341 


Dama^  gcnd.  of,  48,  5. 

Damni  infecti^  w.  verbs  of  promis- 
ing, 409,  5. 

Dates,  Lat.  and  Eng.,  710. 

Dative,  formation  of, — in  1st  dec., 
49,  4 ; in  3d  dec.,  58,  2 ; in  4th 
dec.,  117;  in  5th  dec.,  120. 

Dative,  syntax  of,  382-392, — with 
verbs,  384  if.  Of  advant.  and  dis- 
advant , 385.  W.  compds.,  386. 
Of  possessor,  387.  Of  agent,  388. 
Ethical  dat.,  389.  Two  dat.,  390. 
W.  adjs.,  391.  W.  nouns  and 
adv.,  392.  Of  gerunds,  etc.,  564. 
W.  verbs  of  Separ.,  425,  2,  3). 

DMum^  quantity  of,  651,  8. 

De^  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386,  2.  De 
w.  abl.,  434. 

Decerno^  constr.,  558,  11. 

Decipio^  w.  gen.,  409,  4 ; 410,  7. 

Declarative  sentence,  346. 

Declaring,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 

Declension,  46 ; first,  48 ; second, 
51;  third,  55;  fourth,  116;  sec- 
ond and  fourth,  119;  fifth,  120. 
Comparative  view  of  decl.,  123. 
Decl.  of  compds.,  125. 

Dkl%  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

Dedoceo y constr.,  374,  2 and  3. 

Defective  nouns,  120,  4;  129;  def. 
adjs.,  159  ; def.  comparison,  166  ; 
def.  verbs,  297. 

Deliberative  questions,  w.  the  subj., 
486,  II. 

Demanding,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
374  ; 658,  VI. 

Demonstratives,  1 86  ; use  of,  460. 

Denarius^  712. 

Dentals,  3. 

Deponent  verbs,  225  ; 465,  2. 

Derivation,  313;  of  nouns,  314  ff.; 
of  adjs.,  322  if. ; of  verbs,  330  If. ; 
of  adverbs,  333  ff. 

Derivatives,  quantity  of,  653  ; quan- 
tity of  deriv.  endings,  645  ff. 

Desideratives,  332,  III. 

Desino^  w.  gen.,  409,  4. 

Desire,  subj.  of,  487  ff. ; in  assevera- 
tions, 488,  4;  in  relat.  clauses, 
488,  6. 

Desiring,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  661. 

Desisto^  w.  gen.,  409,  4. 

Despero^  w.  acc.,  871,  3. 

Deterior^  compared,  166. 


Deterreo^  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 

Dem^  61,  5. 

Diaeresis,  669,  III. 

Diana^  quantity  of,  612,  3. 

Diastole,  669,  IV. 

Die  for  dice^  237. 

-dicus,  compds.  in  compared,  164. 
Dido^  68. 

Difference,  abl.  of,  418. 

Differing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  4. 
Differo^  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 

Dignor^  constr.,  419,  2. 

Dignus^  constr.,  419  ; dignus^  qui, 
w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

Dimeter,  663,  2. 

Diminutive  nouns,  315  ; dim.  adjs., 
327 ; dim.  verbs,  332,  IV. 
Diphthongs,  4 ; sounds  of,  9,  16  ; 

quantity  of,  610. 

Dipody,  666,  2. 

Direct  object,  354,  1 ; 371. 

Dis,  di,  338,  3. 

Disadvantage,  dat  of,  385. 
Discrepo,  w.  dat.,  386,  4. 
Disjunctive  conjs.,  810  ; 687  ; sen- 
tences, 360. 

Dispar,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  885. 
Dissentio,  w.  dat.,  386,  4. 
Dissimilis,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Dissyllabic  perfects  and  supines, 
quantity  of,  651. 

Distance,  abl.  of,  378,  2. 

Distich,  666. 

Disto,  w.  dat.,  385,  4. 

Distributives,  172 ; 174 ; decl.  of, 
179. 

Diu,  compared,  305,  4. 

Dius,  quantity  of,  612,  3. 

Diversus,  compared,  167. 

Dives,  compared,  166,  2. 

Doceo,  constr.,  374,  2 and  3. 

Doleo,  w.  accus.,  371,  3 ; w.  clause, 
668,  V. ; w.  abl.,  414,  2,  1). 
Domus,  decl.  of,  119;  gend.,  118; 

constr.,  379,  3 ; 424,  2. 

Donee,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  521  ff. 
Dono,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Double  constr.  of  a few  verbs,  384, 1. 
Double  consonants,  3. 

Due  for  duce,  237. 

Dum,  dummodo,  w.  subj.,  603  ff. ; w. 

ind.  or  subj.,  521  ff. 

Duo,  decl.  of,  175. 


42 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


T?  SOUND  of,  6,  15.  Nouns  in 
Ijj  e, — 1st  dec.,  50;  3d  dec.,  63; 
gend..  111.  in  Greek  acc.  plur., 
68,  6 ; for  ei  in  gen.  and  dat.,  120, 
3 ; in  adverbs,  335  ; changed 
to  iy  341,  3. 

By  quantity  of — in  e^,  120,  2;  final, 
616  ; in  increments  of  deck,  635  ; 
of  conjugation,  641. 

B or  eXy  see  ex. 

^ccewith  demonstratives,  186,  4;  in 
exclamations,  367,  3;  381,  3. 
BcquiSy  188,  3.  Bcquidy  346,  II.  2. 
BdoceOy  constr.,  374,  2 and  3. 
BgenuSy  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3); 
419,  III. 

BgeOy  constr.,  409,  1. 

EgOy  deck  of,  184. 

BheUy  quantity  of,  612,  2. 

Biy  9,  16.  Ely  quantity  of,  612,  2. 
-eis,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-eius,  quantity  of,  612,  2. 

Ejiismo'diy  186,  5. 

-ela,  nouns  in,  320,  7. 

Elegiac  distich,  676,  2. 

Elegiambus,  693,  1. 

Elements  of  sentences,  347  flf 
Ellipsis,  704  ; of  facio,  oro,  367,  3 ; 
602,  II,  3. 

-olluSj  ella,  ellum^  nouns  in,  315 ; 
adjs.  in,  327,  1. 

Emotion,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  651 ; 
558,  V. 

Emphasis  and  euphony  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  words,  594. 

-en,  nouns  in,  76  ; en  in  Greek  acc., 
50,  68  ; with  demonstratives,  186, 
4 ; in  exclamations,  367,  3 ; 381,  3. 
Enallage,  704,  III. 

Enclitics,  accent  of,  25,  3 ; quantity 
of,  613,  1. 

Errloavoring,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
558,  III. 

Endings,  46  ; in  1st  dec.,  48  ; in  2J 
dec.,  61,  2;  in  3d  dec.,  67  ff;  in 
4th  dec.,  116;  in  5th  dec.,  120; 
in  comparison,  162  ; in  conjuga- 
tion, 241  fif. 

English  pronunciation  of  Latin,  6 fif. 
Enim,  place  of,  602,  III. 

-ensis,  adjs.  in,  326  ff. 

-entior,  entissimus,  in  compari- 
son, 164. 

Envying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 


Eoy  w.  gen.,  396,  2,  4). 

Epenthesis,  703,  5. 

Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 
Epichoriambic  verse,  690. 

Epiphora,  704,  II.  4. 

Epitome,  dec.  of,  60. 

Epulum,  plur.,  epulae,  143. 

-er,  gend.  of  nouns  in,  61,  99.  Adjs. 
in,  153;  comparison  of,  163,  1. 
Adverbs  in,  335. 

-ere,  for  erunt,  236. 

Erga,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Ergo,  w.  gen.,  411. 

-es,  nouns  in,  58,  64,  120;  genitive 
of,  80, 81;  gender  of,  104, 109, 120. 
-es,  final,  sound  of,  8,  1 ; quantity 
of,  624. 

-esco,  inceptives  in,  332,  II. 

-esso,  essim,  in  fut.,  perf.,  and  perf. 

subj.,  239,  4 ; esso,  verbs  in,  232. 
-ester,  adjs.  in,  326,  1. 

-etas,  nouns  in,  319,  1. 

Ethical  dative,  389. 

Etiamsi,  etsi,w.  subj.,  615,  516,  HI. 
-etum,  nouns  in,  317. 

Etymology,  37-342. 

Eu,  sound  of,  9. 

Euphonic  clianges,  26  ff. ; in  vowels, 
27  ff. ; in  consonants,  33  ff. ; be- 
fore si,  sum,  turn,  258 ; in  prep- 
ositions, 338,  2. 

Euphony,  see  Emphasis. 

-eus,  adjs.  in,  324,  326. 

Evenit,  constr.,  556,  II. 

-ex,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  93. 

Ex,  e,  in  compds.  w.  dat.  386, 2.  Ex, 
w.  abk,  434. 

Exchanging,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
416,  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  346,  IV.; 
accus.  in,  381 ; voc.,  nom.,  dat. 
in,  381,  3 ; infinitive  in,  563,  III. 
Exoro,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Expers,  exsors,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 
Exterus,  compared,  163,  3. 

Extra,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Extremum  est,  constr.,  666,  I.  2. 
Exuo,  constr.,  374,  7 ; 384,  1. 

FAC,  iov  face,  237. 

Facio,  w.  pred.  gen.,  403. 

Facio  ut,  w.  subj.=:  indie.,  489,  1. 
Falsum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 
Falsus,  compared,  167. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


343 


Fames^  abl.  fame^  137,  2. 

Familia^  genitive  of,  49,  1. 

Fearing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  492,  4. 
Feeling,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551 ; 
558,  V. 

Feet,  metrical,  656  ff. 

Feminine,  42. 

Fer^  iov  fere^  237. 

Fertilis^  w.  gen.,  abl.,  or  acc.,  399, 

2,  (3)  and  5. 

-fex,  compds.  in,  339,  2. 

-ficus,  adjs.  in,  compared,  164. 

Fido^  w.  dat.,  385 ; w.  abl.,  419. 
Figures, — of  prosody,  669  ; of  ety- 
mology, 703  ; of  syntax,  704;  of 
Rhetoric,  705, 

Filling,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410,  7. 
Final  conjs.,  311  ; 588,  V. 

Final  syllables,  quantity  of,  613  If. ; 

final  syllable  of  the  verse,  665. 
Finite,  or  definite  moods,  196 ; finite 
verb,  196. 

FlOy  quantity  of,  612,  3. 

Fi^y  constr.,  556,  II. 

FlagiiOy  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2 ; w. 

subj.,  658,  VI. 

Focly  locat,  of  place,  424,  3. 
Following,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  556, 
III. 

Formation, — of  cases,  46  ; of  parts 
of  verbs,  201  ff.;  of  words,3 13-342. 
Fractions,  174,  1. 

Freeing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410,  7. 
Frenurriy  igl.y  freniy  frenay  143. 
Frequentativos,  332. 

FretuSy  w.  abl.,  419,  IV. 

Frugiy  indecl.,  159;  compared,  165. 
FruoTy  constr.,  419. 

Fungor y constr.,  419. 

FuroTy  w.  dat.,  425,  2. 

Future,  197  ; 215, 1. ; in  indie.,  470; 
w.  force  of  imperat.,  470,  1 ; for 
Eng.  pres.,  470,  2 ; w.  meZm9,470, 

3.  Wanting  in  subj.,  479;  how 
supplied,  481,  III.  1.  In  imperat., 
634,  537 ; fut.  for  pres.,  and  pres, 
for  fut.,  534,  1 and  2.  In  infin., 
543  ff. ; circumlocution  for,  544. 
In  part.,  573. 

Future  Perfect,  197 ; 215,  II. ; in  in- 
die., 473;  to  denote  certainty, 
473,  1 ; for  Eng.  pres.,  473,  2. 
Wanting  in  subj.,  479  ; how  sup- 
plied, 481,  III.  2. 


Futurum  essCy  fuissCy  forCy  uty  644, 
1-3. 

Futurum  sit  uty  481,  III.  1 and  2. 

G SOUND  of,  11  ff.,  17;  changed, 
, 258. 

GaudeOy  constr.,  371,  3;  551,  III.; 

558,  V. ; 414,  2. 

GemOy  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Gems,  gender  of  names  of,  53. 
Gender,  42  ff. ; in  1st  dec.,  48 ; in 
2d  dec.,  51,  63;  in  3d  dec.,  99- 
115  ; in  4th  dec.,  118  ; in  5th  dec., 
121 ; general  table  of,  124. 
Genitive,  endings  of,  47 ; in  1st  dec., 
48 ; as  for  «e,  um  for  arumy  49  ; 
in  2d  dec.,  51 ; i for  iiy  um  for 
orumy  52  ; o or  on,  64 ; in  3d  dec., 
69-98;  in  4th  dec.,  116;  uis  for 
icSy  117;  in  5th  dec.,  120;  o or  i 
for  eiy  120,  3.  In  adjectives,  151- 
158. 

Genitive,  how  rendered,  393,  393, 

1. 

Genitive,  syntax  of,  393-411, — with 
nouns,  395  ; varieties,  396  ; pecu- 
liarities, 397 ; other  constrs.  for 
gen.,  398.  W.  adjs.,  399.  W.  verbs, 
401  ff.  Pred.  gen.,  401  ff. ; other 
constrs.  for,  404.  In  special  con- 
strs., 405  ff.  Acc.  and  gen.,  410. 
W.  adverbs,  411.  Gen.  of  ge- 
runds and  gerundives,  663. 
GeniiuSy  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 

Gentile  nouns,  326,  3. 

Gerund, — Nature  of,  559.  Cases  of, 
560.  Ger.  and  Infin.,  560,  2.  W. 
direct  object,  661.  Gerundive, 
662;  of  utory  fruory  etc.,  662,  4. 
Pass,  sense  of  Ger.,  662,  6.  Gen- 
itive of  ger.  and  gerundive,  563 ; 
ger.  when  preferred,  663,  2 ; ge- 
rundive with  meiy  nosfriy  etc.,  663, 
4 ; of  purpose,  663,  5 ; infin.  for 
ger.,  663,  6.  Dat.  of,  664 ; of 
purpose,  with  official  names,  564, 
2 and  3.  Accus.  of,  565 ; w.  ob- 
ject, 565,  2 ; of  purpose,  665,  3. 
Abl.  of,  566. 

Gloriory  w.  abl.,  414,  2. 

Gloriosum  esty  656,  I.  2. 

Glyconie  verse,  664,  689. 

GnaruSy  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Golden  age,  706. 


344 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Greek  nouns, — in  1st  dec.,  60 ; in  2d 
dec.,  64 ; in  3d  dec.,  68. 
Gutturals,  3. 

Ha  breathing,  2. 

j Hadria^  gender  of,  48,  6. 
Happening,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  656, 

II. 

Haud^  ne^  non^  684. 

Hendecasyllabic  verse,  691,  Y. 
Hendiadys,  704,  II.  2. 
Hephthemimeris,  656,  2. 

Heroic  verse,  664. 

Heros ^ decl.  of,  68. 

Heteroclites,  135  ff. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  141  if. 
Hexameter  verse,  663,  2.  Dactylic, 
671. 

Hic^  iste^  ille^  decl.  of,  186, ; use  of, 
450. 

Hie  and  ille^  redundant,  450,  4,  2). 
Hie  (adv.),  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 
Hipponactean,  683,  4. 

Historical  tenses,  198,  2 ; hist,  pres- 
ent, 467,  III. ; hist,  perfect,  471,  II. 
Hodie^  quantity  of,  654,  8. 

Horace,  versification  of,  698  ff.  Lyric 
metres  of,  700.  Index,  701. 
Horreo^  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Huc^  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 
Hujusmodi^  186,  5. 

Humus^  gender  of,  53 ; constr.  of 
Jiumi^  424,  2. 

Hypallage,  704,  III.  2. 

Hyperbaton,  704,  lY. 

Hyperbole,  705,  Y. 

Hypercatalectic  verse,  663,  III. 
Hypermeter,  663,  III. 

Hypothetical  sentences,  see  Condi- 
tional  ditto. 

Hysteron  proteron,  704,  lY.  2. 

T SUPPLIES  the  place  of  j,  2,  3 ; 
J-j  sound  of,  6 if. ; 16 ; with  the 
sound  of  y,  7 ; 4,  4) ; 15,  3 ; i for 
u,  iCy  52.  Nouns  in,  71 ; gender 
of.  Ill ; i,  final  in  abl.,  62  ff. ; for 
eiy  120,  3 ; in  perfect,  247,  2.  /, 
quantity  of, — ^final,  618  ; in  incre- 
ments of  decl.,  636 ; of  conjuga- 
tion, 643. 

•ia,  nouns  in,  319;  in  nom.,  acc., 
and  voc.  plur.,  63. 

-iacus,  adjs.  in,  326. 


-iades,  in  patronymics,  316. 
lambelegus,  694,  1. 
lambic  verse, — Dipody,  682.  Tri- 
meter, 683 ; choliambus,  683,  4 ; 
catalectic,  684.  Dimeter,  685 ; 
hypermeter,  686,  1 ; catalectic, 
685,  2 ; acephalous,  685,  3.  Te- 
trameter, 686. 
lambico-dactylic  verse,  694. 

-ianus,  adjs.  in,  326. 

-ias,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-ibam,  for  iebam^  239,  1. 

-ibo,  ibor,  for  iam^  iar^  239,  2. 
-icius,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Ictus,  659. 

-icus,  adjs.  in,  325  if. 

Idern^  deck,  186;  w.  dat.,  391,  3; 
use  of,  451.  Idem — qui^  ac  or  at- 
que^  451,  5. 

Ides,  of  the  calendar,  708, 1.  3. 
-ides,  in  patronymics,  316. 

-ido,  nouns  in,  320,  7. 

Idoneus  qui^  w.  subj.,  601,  III. 
-idus,  verbals  in,  328. 

-iensis,  adjs.  in,  326. 

-ier,  for  i in  infin.,  239,  6. 

Igitur^  place  in  the  clause,  602,  III. 
Ignarus^  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-igo,  nouns  in,  320,  7. 

-ile,  nouns  in,  317. 

-iiis,  adjs.  in,  325,  328 ; compared, 
163,  2. 

Illative  conjs.,  310;  587,  lY. ; sen- 
tences, 360. 

Ille^  decl.  of,  186 ; use  of,  450. 
lUic  for  ille^  186,  3. 

-illo,  verbs  in,  832,  lY. 

-illus,  ilia,  ilium,  in  nouns,  316,  3 ; 
in  adjs.,  327,  1. 

-im,  in  acc.  62 ; for  exm,  or  em  in 
pres,  subj.,  239,  3. 

Immemor^  w.  gen.,  399,  2. 

-imonia,  nouns  in,  819. 

Impedio^  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 
Imperative,  196.  Tenses,  634.  Use, 
535,  if. ; pres.,  536  ; fut.,  637 ; in 
prohibitions,  538. 

Imperative  sentences,  346,  III. 
Imperfect  tense,  197;  215,  I.;  w. 
jamdiu^  etc.  467,  2.  In  indie.,  468 
if;  in  lively  description,  of  custom- 
ary or  repeated  action,  469  ; of  at- 
tempted action,  in  letters,  469,  1 
and  2.  In  Subj.,  477;  of  present 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


345 


time,  481,  V.;  after  Perf.  Def., 
48:2,  1;  for  Pluperf.,  486,  4;  in 
desires  and  wishes,  488,  2;  in 
condition,  510;  after  antequam 
priusquam^  623,  2. 

Imperitus^  w.  gen.  399,  (2). 

Impero^  constr.,  651,  II.  1 and  2. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  fif. ; subjects 
of,  666,  I.-III. 

Imperito^  constr.,  384,  1. 

Impleo,  constr.,  410,  7. 

Impos,  167,  2 ; w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Impotens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Imprudens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-in,  in  Greek  accs.,  68. 

In,  incompds.,  338,  2 ; w.  two  accs., 
374,  6 ; w.  dat.,  386.  In,  acc, 
or  abl.,  435. 

In  loco,  or  in  numero,  w.  genit.,  362, 
2,  (3). 

Inceptives,  inchoatives,  832,  II. 

Incertus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Inclination,  subj.  of,  486,  3. 

Inclutus,  compared,  167. 

Increments,  629  ff. ; quantity  of,  632 


ff.,  639  ff. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  gepder  of,  42; 
examples,  128.  Indepl.  adjs.,  159. 

Indefinite  moods,  196. 

Indefinite  propouns,  18y ; use  of, 
455  ff.  \ 

Index  of  verbs,  721. 

Indicative,  196  ; use  of,  474  ff. ; spe- 
cial uses,  476. 

Indigeo,  constr.,  409,  1. 

Indignus,  w.  abl.,  419,  IV. ; indignus 
qui,  w.  subj.,  501,  III. 

Indirect  discourse,  distinguished 
from  direct,  528.  Subj.  in,  529. 
Moods  in  prin.  clause,  630 ; in  sub. 
clause,  531.  Tenses,  532 ; Pro- 

, nouns,  adverbs,  etc.,  633. 

Indirect  object,  364,  2.  Rule,  384 : 
indirect  w.  direct,  384,  II. 

Indirect  questions,  524  ff., — Subj.  in, 
625.  Indie,  in,  625,  6 ; in  orat. 
obliqua,  530,  II.  2 ; sing,  and  dou- 
ble, 526. 

Induco,  constr.,  374,  7. 

Indulging,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Induo,  constr.,  374,  7;  384,  1. 

-ine,  in  patronymics,  316,  5. 

-ineus,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Inferus,  compared,  163,  3. 


Infinitive,  196,  II.  Tenses  of,  540 
ff.  Subject  of,  645 ; of  Hist,  in- 
fin.,  545, 1.  Predicate  after,  646  ; 
attracted,  547.  Construction  of, 
548  ff. ; as  Nom.,  549 ; as  Accus., 
550  ff. ; w.  another  acc.,  552,  2 ; 
in  relative  clauses,  631,  1 ; after 
conjunctions,  631,  2 ; after  adjs., 

652,  3 ; after  preps.,  652,  4 ; in 
special  constrs.,  553 ; as  pred., 

653,  I. ; as  appos.,  553,  II. ; in 
exclam.,  553,  III. ; as  abl.  abs., 
653,  IV. ; of  Purpose,  553,  A. ; 
for  Gerund,  653,  VI. 

Infra,  w.  acc.,  433. 

Ingenii,  w.  adjs.,  399,  3. 

Injuring,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Innitor,  constr.,  419. 

Inops,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3) ; 419, 
Inscius,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 
Inseparable  preps.,  307  ; 664,  2. 
Inspergo,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Instrument,  abl.  of,  414,  4. 

Insuesco,  w.  abl.,  386,  2. 

Insuetus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2);  w.  other 
constrs.,  399,  6. 

Insuper,  w.  acc.,  437,  3. 

Integer,  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Inter,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; w.  dat., 
386.  Inter,  w.  acc.,  433. 
Intercludo,  constr.,  384,  1. 

Interest,  w.  gen.,  406,  III. 

Interior,  compared,  166. 
Interjections,  312 ; w.  voc.,  369,  1 ; 
w.  nom.,  acc.,  or  dat.,  381,  3 ; use 
of,  689  ff. 

Interrogative  conjunctions,  311,  688. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  188  ; use  of, 
454. 

Interrogative  sentences,  — Form, 
346,  II.  Interrog.,  words,  346, 

ll.  1.  Double  quest.,  346,  II.  2. 
Deliber,  quest.,  486,  II.  Answers, 
346,  II.  3.  Indirect  quest.,  525 ; 
w.  indie.,  525,  6 ; single  and  dou- 
ble, 526.  In  indirect  discourse, 
629  ff. ; rhetorical  que?t.,  630,  2. 

Interrogo,  w.  two  accs.,  374,  2 ; w. 

acc.  and  abl.,  374,  2,  3. 

Intra,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193  ; 371,3;  im- 
personal pass.,  466,  1. 

-inus,  adjs.  in,  824  ff. 

Invidus,  w.  gen.  or  dat.,  399,  2,  2). 


346 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Invitu^^  idiomatic  use  of  dat.,  887,  3. 
-io,  verbs  of  3d  conj.  in,  221  If. ; 

nouns  in,  318,  321. 

Ionic  verse,  687. 

-ior,  in  comparatives,  162. 

Ipse^  decl.  of,  186 ; use  of,  452. 
Ipsus^  for  ipse^  186,  4. 

Iron  age,  706. 

Irony,  705,  lY. ; in  condition,  503,  3. 
Irregular  nouns,  127  tf. ; irreg.  adjs., 
159  ; irreg.  comparison,  163  ff. 
Irregular  pi^cip^  parts  of  vi|rbs, 
259-288  ; irreg.  verbs,  287  ff.' 

Ts,  decl.  of,  186;  use  of,  451;  re- 
flexive, 448  ; redundant,  450,  4. 
Is — qui^  451,  4. 

-is,  in  acc.,  dat.,  and  a%l.  plur.,  of 
8d  decl.,  58,  2 ; 62.  I^ouns  in  w, 
82 ; gender  of,  105.  ^ 

-is,  in  patronymics,  316;  quantity 
of  is  final,  626. 

-isco,  inceptives  in,  332,  11. 

Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42  ; con- 
str.  of  names  of,  424. 

-issimus,  in  superlatives,  162. 

-isso,  verbs  in,  332. 

Iste^  decl.  of,  186 ; use  of,  450. 

Istic^  isthic,  for  iste^  186,  2. 

Ita-si,  only  if,  503,  4. 

-itas,  nouns  in,  319. 

-itek  a^v^s  in,  335. 
ithyphalicus,  681,  2. 

-itia,  nouns  in,  319. 

-itimuSj  adjs.  in,  325,  1. 

-itium,  nouns  in,  318. 

-ito,  frequentatives  in,  332. 

-itudo,  nouns  in,  319. 

Jfuniy  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

-itus,  nouns  in,  318  ; adjs.  in,  323  ; 

adverbs  in,  334,  2. 

-ium,  in  genit,  plur.,  62  ff. ; nouns 
in,  318  ff. 

-ius,  adjs.  in,  326;  quantity  of, 
612,  3. 

-iXj  genitive  of  nouns  in,  94. 

J PLACE  supplied  by  i,  2 ; length- 
y ens  preceding  vowel,  611. 
Jecur y genitive  of,  77,  lY. 

JocuSy  \\.y  jociy  jocay  ML 

JoheOy  constr.,  551,  II.,  1 and  2. 
Jugerurriy  decl.  of,  136 ; use  of,  718. 
Jugurriy  quantity  of  compds.  of,  611, 

3. 


Jungo y w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Jupiter y genitive  of,  66,  3. 
Jusjurandumy  decl.  of,  126. 

Juvenal,  versification  of,  696. 
JuvenaliSy  abl.  of,  62,  lY.  1. 
JuveniSy  abl.  of,  62,  lY.  1 ; com- 
pared, 168,  3. 

JuvOy  w.  accus.,  385,  1. 

JuxtUy  w.  accus.,  433. 

KRARE,  2. 

y Knowing,  constr.  of  verbs  of, 
551,  I.  1. 

L NOUNS  in,  63  ; genit,  of,  75  ; 
y gender.  111  ff. ; quantity  of 
final  syllables  in,  621. 

Labials,  3. 

Labor Oy  w.  abl.,  414,  2. 

Lacrimo y w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

LeadOy  w.  accus.,  385,  1. 

Lary  quantity  of  genii,  633,  4. 
LassuSy  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

Latin  authors,  706. 

Latin  grammar,  1. 

Latin  period,  605. 

-lentus,  adjs.  in,  323. 

Letters,  classes  of,  3 ; combinations 
of,  4 ; sounds  of,  6 ff. 

LiberOy  w.  abl.  or  gen.,  425,  3. 
Libray  714. 

Licet y w.  subj.,  615. 

Liquids,  3. 

Litotes,  705,  YI. 
lAtmUy  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Locative,  45,  2 ; in  1st  decl.,  48,  4 ; 
in  2d  decl.,  61,  6 ; in  3d  decl.,  62, 
lY.  3.  Syntax  of,  421  ff. 
Logaoedic  verse,  691. 

LongiuSy  without  quaniy  417,  3. 

-Is,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  89. 

M EUPHONIC  changes  of,  258, 
y 338,  2 ; quantity  of  final  syl- 
lables in,  621 ; elided,  669,  I. 
-ma,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of  nouns  in, 
68,  2. 

MagiSy  maximCy  in  adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

Magnus y compared,  166. 

Major y in  expressions  of  age,  417,  3. 
Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs.,  373  ; 

w.  subj.,  658,  lY. 

MalOy  constr.,  551,  II.  1 and  2. 


INDEX  OE  SUBJECTS. 


347 


MaluSy  compared,  165. 

Manifestus^  w.  gen.,  899,  3. 

Manner,  means,  abi.  of,  414 ; parti- 
ciple for,  578,  II. 

Masculine,  42. 

Material  nouns,  39,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  418; 
measure  in  prosody,  663,  II. ; Ro- 
man measure,  715  ff. 

Med^  for  me^  184,  8. 

Medeor^  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Medius^  designating  part,  441,  6. 
Melius^  w,  indie,  for  subj.,  475,  2-4. 
Melos^  plur.  of,  68,  6. 

Meme^  184,  7. 

Memini^  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ; w.  acc., 
407,  1. 

Memor^  w.  gen.,  399,  2). 

-men,  mentum,  nouns  in,  320. 
MensUy  decl.  of,  48. 

Mepte^  184,  8. 

-met,  forms  in,  184,  6 ; 185,  2. 
Metaphor,  705,  I. 

Metathesis,  703,  7. 

Metonymy,  705,  II. 

Metre,  667. 

Metrical  equivalents  and  substitutes, 
657,  658. 

Metuo^  constr.,  385,  3 ; 492,  4. 

Meus^  decl.,  185. 

Mi  for  184,  8. 

Militia^  constr.,  424,  2. 

Mille^  decl.  and  use  of,  174,  4 ; 178. 
Million,  cardinal  for,  174 ; symbol 
for,  180. 

Million  sesterces,  Latin  for,  713,  4. 
-mine,  in  imperatives,  239,  5. 

Minor ^ minus^  without  quam^  417,  3. 
Miror^  w.  accus.,  371,  3 ; w.  gen., 
409,  4. 

Mirum  est^  constr.  of,  556,  I.  2. 

Mis  for  mei^  184,  8. 

Misceo^  w.  dat.,  or  abl.,  385,  5. 
Misereor^  miseresco^  w.  gen.,  406. 
Miseret^  constr.,  410.  Miserescit^ 
miseretur^  410,  6. 

Moderor^  constr.,  385,  3. 

Modifier,  348  ff. 

Modius^  715. 

Modo^  w.  subj.,  503,  505. 

Moereo^  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Moneo ^ constr.,  410,  3. 

Money,  Roman,  712  ff. 

Monometer,  663,  2. 

16 


Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  613. 
Months,  Roman,  707 ; division  of, 
708  ; gender  of  names  of,  42. 
Moods,  196, — Indie.,  474  ff.  Subj., 
483-533.  Imperat.,  634  ff.  In- 
fin.,  539-553.  Gerund,  559  ff. 
Supine,  567  ff.  Part.,  571  ff. 
Mood-signs,  244  ff. 

Mos^  moris  est^  constr.,  656,  I.  1. 
-ms,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  87. 
Multiplicatives,  173. 

Multus^  comparison  of,  165. 

Mutes,  3. 

Muto^  constr.,  416,  2. 

NOUNS  in,  60;  genit,  of,  76; 
9 gend.  of.  111,  113  ; quantity 
of  final  syllables  in,  621. 

Name,  dat.  of,  387, 1 ; gen.  of,  387,  2. 
Names  of  towns,  const.,  423. 

MatuSy  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 

Mcy  nmUy  nonnCy  interrog.  particles, 
311,  8;  in  single  questions,  346, 
II.  1 ; in  double,  346,  II.  2 ; in  in- 
direct questions,  526. 

Ncy  w.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  3 ; of 
purpose,  489  ff. ; of  concession, 
615. 

Ncy  nony  handy  684.  NcvCy  490,  1. 
Necncy  346,  II.  2,  3) ; 526,  2,  1). 
Nedum y w.  subj.,  493,  4. 

Negatives,  684 ; force  of  two  nega- 
tives, 685. 

NemOy  72;  use  of,  457,  1. 

NequaiUy  indecl.,  159;  compared, 
165,  2. 

Ne — quidemy  685  j 602,  III.  2. 
Nescio  aUy  w.  subj.,  626,  II.  2,  2). 
Nescio  quiSy  quomodo y etc.,  w.  indie., 
525,  4. 

Nescius y w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  324. 

Neuter y decl.  of,  151. 

Neuter  adjectives,  as  adverbs,  335, 
4 ; as  cognate  accus.,  371,  1,  3) 

(2)  ; as  a second  accus.,  374,  5 ; 
w.  partitive  genit.,  396,  III.  2,  3) 

(3)  ; as  predicate,  438,  4. 

Neuter  nouns,  nom.,  acc.,  and  voc. 

of,  46,  2 ; neuter  by  signification, 
42  ; by  ending,  in  2d  dec.,  61, 
63;  in  3d  dec..  Ill  ff. ; in  4th 
dec.,  116. 

Niy  w.  subj.,  503,  607  ff. 


348 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


MmiSj  w.  gen.,  39G,  III.  4). 

Msi,  w.  subj.,  503,  507  if. 

Msi  and  si  non^  meaning,  508,  3. 

Nitor ^ constr.,  419. 

Nix^  66. 

Nolo^  constr.,  551, 11.  1 and  2 ; noZ^, 
-^7o,  in  prohibitions,  535,  1,  3). 

Nomen  est^  constr.,  387,  1. 

Nominative,  syntax  of,  366  if.  ; as 
subject,  367  ; agreement  of,  368  ; 
for  voc.,  369,  2. 

Non^  ne^  haud^  584 ; place  of  non^ 
602,  lY.,  omitted,  584,  2. 

Non^  w.  quo^  quod^  quin^  quia^  w. 
subj.,  520,  3. 

Nones  in  the  Roman  month,  708, 1.  2. 

Nonne^  non  = nonne ^ 346,  II.  1. 

iY)s,  for  ego^  446,  2. 

Nosier^  for  meiis^  446,  2. 

Nostras^  185,  3. 

Nostri^  nostrum^  396,  1 ; 446,  3. 

Nouns,  etymology  of, — gender  of, 
42  if. ; pers.  and  numb.,  44  ; 
cases,  45;  declensions,  48-126; 
indecl.,  128 ; defect.,  129  ; hetero- 
elites,  135  if. ; heterogeneous,  141. 

Nouns,  syntax  of,  362-437, — ^Agree- 
ment, 362  if.  Nom.,  364  if. ; 
Yoc.,  369  ; Accus.,  370-381; 
Dat.,  382-392;  Gen.,  393-411; 
Abl.,  412-431;  w.  preps.,  432- 
437. 

NovuSy  compared,  167. 

Noxius^  w.  gen.,  399,  3. 

-ns,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  90, 

Nnho^  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Ndlm,  decl.  of,  151 ; use  of,  457; 
for  non^  457,  3.. 

Nmn^  numquid^  346,  II.  1 and  2. 

Number,  44;  in  verbs,  199. 

Numerals,  171  if;  adjs.,  172  ff. ; 
decl.  of,  175  if;  symbols,  180; 
adverbs,  181. 

-nus,  adjectives  in,  324. 

Nusquam^  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

0 SOUND  of,  6 if,  15 ; nouns  in, 
9 60,  72 ; gend.,  99,  100 ; de- 

rivatives in,  320,  6 ; 331. 

0,  quantity  of, — final,  620 ; in  in- 
crements, 634,  642 ; in  compds., 
654,  7. 

Oh,  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; in  compds. 
17,  dat.,  386.  Oh^  w.  acc.,  433. 


Ohediens,  w.  two  datives,  390,  3. 
Obeying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Object,  direct,  indirect,  combined, 
354;  direct,  371;  omit,  371,  1, 
(3);  clause  as  an  object,  371,  5; 
557  if  See  Subject  and  object 
clauses. 

Objective  genitive,  396,  II. 

Oblique  cases,  45,  1 ; use  of,  370- 
437. 

Obliviscor,  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ; other 
constrs.,  407. 

Obsisio,  obsto,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 
Odor,  compared,  166. 

Oe,  sound  of,  9,  16. 

Officio,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 

Ohe,  quantity,  612,  4. 

-olentus,  adjectives  in,  323. 

Oleo  and  redoleo,  w.  acc.,  371,  3. 
Ollus,  for  ille,  186,  4. 

-oius,  ola,  olum,  in  diminutives, — 
in  nouns,  315,  2 ; in  adjs.,  327,  1. 
Omnes,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  2,  3). 

-on,  in  Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4. 
-one,  in  patronymics,  316,  5. 
Operam  do^  w.  subj.,  492,  1. 
Optimum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 
Opus,  constr.,  419. 

-or,  gender  of  nouns  in,  99,  101 ; 

derivation  of,  320  if. 

Oratio  obliqua,  see  Indirect  dis- 
course. 

Ordinal  numbers,  172,  174;  decl. 
of,  179. 

Oro,  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ; w.  subj, 
or  infill , 558,  YI.  3. 

Orpheus,  68. 

Orthography,  2-36. 

Ortus,  w.  abl.,  425,  3. 

-os,  nouns  in,  61 ; genit,  of,  83  ; 

gend.,  99,  102. 

-os,  for  is  in  the  genitive,  68. 

-os  final,  sound  of,  8,  1 ; quantity, 
625. 

-osus,  adjs.  in,  323. 

Ovid,  versification  of,  697. 

-ox,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  95. 

PALAM,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Fanthus,  voc.  of,  54,  4. 

Far  and  dispjar,  constr.,  391,  2,  4). 
Paragoge,  703,  6. 

Pardoning,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Paroemiac  verse,  664. 


INDEX  OP  SUBJECTS. 


349 


ParSy  in  fractions,  174,  1. 

Particeps^  genit,  of,  158,  2 ; w.  gen., 
399,  (3). 

Participles,  196,  II.  4 ; as  predicate 
adjs.  w.  575,  1.  Tenses, 

relative  time,  571.  Agreement 
and  use,  438  and  575  if.  For 
rel.  clause,  577.  For  sub.  clause, 
— time,  cause,  manner,  means," 
condition,  concession,  purpose, 
578.  For  prin.  clause,  579.  For 
verbal  noun,  580.  W.  negative, 
581. 

Particles,  etymology  of,— Adverbs, 
303  ff. ; preps.,  306  tf. ; con- 
juncts.,  308  ff. ; interjects.,  312. 

Particles,  syntax  of,  582-590, — Ad- 
verbs, 582  IF. ; preps.,  586,  432- 
437 ; conjuncts.,  587  IF. ; inter- 
jects., 589  ft*. 

Partim^  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4).  Par- 
tim — partim^  lov pars — pars^  461, 

5. 

Partitive  genitive,  396,  IIIv 

Partitive  appositive,  363,  4. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Parum ^ w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 

Parvus^  compared,  165. 

Passive  voice,  195  ; passive  constr., 
371,  6.  ■ 

Paterfamilias^  decl.  of,  126. 

Patior^  constr.,  551,  II.  1,  2. 

Patrials,  326,  2. 

Patronymics,  316. 

Pause,  caesural,  662. 

Peculiarities  in  conjug.,  234  IF. 

Pelagus^  plur.  and  gend.  of,  53, 
54,  4. 

Penes ^ w.  accus.,  433. 

Pentameter,  663,  2. 

Penthemimeris,  656,  2. 

Penults,  quantity  of,  645  IF. 

Per,  in  compds.,  338,  2;  371,  4; 
per^  w.  acc.,  433.  Per  me  stat^ 
499,  1. 

Perceiving,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 

Percontor^  \v.  two  accs.,  374,  2. 

Perfect,  197;  215,  2;  pres,  and 
hist.,  or  definite  and  indef.,  198  ; 
wanting,  267,  281,  284,  2. 

Perfect,  syntax  of, — in  indie.,  471 ; 
def.  and  indef.,  or  pres,  and  hist., 
471 ; of  what  has  ceased  to  be, 
471,  1 ; w.  paenc^  prope^  471,  2 ; 


for  Eng.  pres.,  471,  3 ; w.  post- 
quam^ ut^  mt  primum^  471,  4. 
In  subj.,  478  ; in  sequence,  480 ; 
after  hist,  tense,  482,  2 ; 533,  1 ; 
in  desires  and  wishes,  488,  2 ; in 
condition,  509 ; in  orat.  obi.,  532 
IF. ; in  infin.,  542 ; for  pres.,  542, 

^ -2^  In  part.,  574 ; for  verbal 
noun,  580. 

Perfect  system,  215,  2. 

Perfect  stem,  formation  of,  252  ff 

Period,  Latin,  arrangement  of,  605. 

Periphrastic  conjugation,  231  ff*. 

Peritus^  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Permisceo^  w.  dat.,  385,  5. 

Permitto^  constr.,  551,  II.  2. 

Person,  of  nouns,  44  ; of  verbs,  199. 

Personal  pronouns,  184 ; use  of, 
446 ; refiex.  use  of,  448. 

Personal  endings,  247 ; in  perfect, 
247,  2 ; in  imperative,  247,  3. 

Persuading,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Pertaedet^  pertaesum  est^  410,  6. 

Peto,  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 

PA,  4. 

Phalaecian  verse,  691,  Y. 

Pherecratean  verse,  689,  II. 

Piget^  constr.,  410. 

Place,  abl.  of,  421  ff*.;  locative,  421  ff. 

Pleasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 

Plenty,  constr.  of  verbs  and  adis. 
of,  419,  III. 

Plenus^  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3) ; 419. 

Pleonasm,  704,  II. 

Pluperfect,  197  ; 215,  II. — in  indie., 
472 ; in  letters,  472,  1 ; for  Eng. 
imp.,  472,  2.  In  subj.,  478 ; se- 
quence, 480  ; in  desires  and 
wishes,  488,  2 ; in  condition, 
610 ; after  antequam  and  prius- 
quam^ 623,  2 : in  orat.  obi.,  532  ; 
533,  2-4. 

Plural,  44;  wanting,  130;  with 
change  of  meaning,  132. 

Plus^  without  quam^  417,  3. 

Paenitet^  constr.,  410. 

Polysyndeton,  704,  II.  1. 

Pone^  w.  accus.,  433. 

Posco,  w.  two  accs.  or  acc.  and  abl., 
374,  2 ; w.  subj.,  568,  YI. 

Position,  long  by,  611 ; short,  612. 

Positive,  160 ; wanting,  166. 

Possessives,  185;  w.  gen.,  397,  3; 
for  gen.,  398,  3 ; w.  refert  and 


350 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


interest^  408,  1,  2);  use  of,  447; 
reflexive,  448. 

Possessor,  dat.  of,  387. 

Fost^  sound  of,  8,  1. 

Po8t^  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Fo8t^  in  expressions 
of  time,  427 ; \v.  acc.,  433. 

Po8teru8^  compared,  163,  3. 

Po8tremus^  force  of,  442. 

Po8tridie^  w.  gen.,  411 ; w,  accus., 
437,  1. 

Po8tulOj  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 

Poten8^  w.  gen.,  399,  (3). 

Potential  subjunctive,  485  ff. ; in 
declar.  sentences,  486,  I. ; in  de- 
liberative questions,  486,  II. ; in 
sub.  clauses,  486,  III. ; of  repeat- 
ed action,  486,  5. 

Potior^  w.  gen.,  409,  3 ; w.  abl., 
419;  419,4. 

Prae,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386  ; prae, 
w.  abl.,  434. 

Praeditu8^  w.  abl.,  419,  3. 

Praeter^  in  compds.,  w.  accus.,  371, 
4 ; praeter^  w.  accus.,  433. 

Predicate,  347 ; simple,  353 ; com- 
plex, 354  ; compound,  361.  Pred. 
nouns,  355,  362.  Pred.  adjs., 
356 ; 438,  2.  Pred.  gen.,  401 ; 
varieties  of,  402;  verbs  with, 
403 ; other  constrs.  for,  404. 
Pred.  abl.,  428,  1. 

Prepositions,  306 ; insep.,  307  ; in 
compds.,  338,  2.  In  expressions 
of  time  and  space,  378,  1 and  2. 
W.  names  of  places,  379,  1,  2, 
and  4.  Pro  with  abl.,  384,  2,  2). 
Compds.  w.  dat.,  386.  A or  ah 
w.  abl.  of  agent,  388,  1 ; 414,  5. 
Case  w.  prep,  for  the  dat.,  391, 
2 ; for  the  gen.,  398,  4 ; 399,  5 ; 
407,  2 ; 410,  4.  Cum  w.  abl.  of 
accompaniment,  414,  7.  Quam 
pro,  417,  6.  W.  abl.  of  place, 
421 ; of  source  and  separation, 
425;  of  time,  426.  Preps,  w. 
cases.  Pule,  432,  434  ff. ; preps, 
as  adverbs,  436. 

Present,  197;  215,  I.,— in  indie., 
466  ff. ; w.  jamdiu,  etc.,  467,  2 ; 
of  general  truths,  customs,  hist, 
pres.,  467.  In  subj.,  477.  In 
imperat.,  536.  In  infin.,  541. 
Part.,  572. 


Present  perfect,  471,  I. 

Present  stem,  formation  of,  250  ff. 

Present  system  of  forms,  215,  I. 

Priapeian  verse,  695. 

Price,  gen.  of,  396,  IV. ; abl.  of,  416. 

Pridie,  w.  gen.,  411 ; w.  acc.,  437,  1. 

Primitives  and  derivatives,  313. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  213  ff. ; 
259-288.  Prin.  clauses,  345, 
2 ; in  oratio  obliqua,  530.  Prin. 
elements,  349 ; tenses,  198,  2. 

Prior,  primu8,  166  ; force  of,  442, 1. 

Priu8quam,  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  521, 
523. 

Pro,  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386,  2 ; 
pro,  w.  abl.  in  defense  of,  384,  2, 
2) ; pro,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Pro,  quantity  of,  in  compds.,  654, 4. 

Procul,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Proliiheo,  constr.,  499,  1 ; 551,  II.  1. 

Pronouns,  182  ff. ; pers.,  184;  pos- 
ses., 185;  demon.,  186;  relat., 
187 ; interrog.,  188 ; indef.,  189. 

Pronouns,  syntax  of,  445-459, — 
Agreement,  445.  Pers.  and  Pos- 
ses., 446  ff.  Keflex,  use  of,  448 
vff.  Demon.,  450  ff.  Rel.,  453. 
Interrog.,  454.  Indef.,  455. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  5-25. 

Prope,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Proper  nouns,  39. 

Propior,  proximus,  166;  w.  accus., 
391,  2,  2);  433. 

Propius,  w.  accus.,  437,  1. 

Proprius,  constr.,  391,  2,  4) ; 399,  3. 

Propter,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Prosody,  607-701, — Quantity,  608- 
654.  Versification,  655-701. 

Prospicio,  385,  3. 

Prosthesis,  703,  4. 

Provideo,  constr.,  385,  3. 

Providus,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Proxime,  w.  accus.,  437,  1. 

Proximum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 

Proximus,  w.  accus.,  391,  2,  2) ; 433. 

Prudens,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2) ; w.  abl., 
399,  5. 

-ps,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Pudet,  constr,,  410. 

Punishment,  w.  verbs  of  condemn- 
ing, 410,  5. 

Purgo,  constr.,  410,  7. 

Purpose,  subjunctive  of,  489  ff. ; w. 
conjuncts.,  490 ; pure  purpose, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


351 


491  ; mixed,  492  ; peculiarities, 
493  ; in  rel.  clauses,  500  ff.  In- 
fin.  of  purpose,  553,  V. ; gerund, 
563,  5 ; 564,  2 ; supine,  569 ; 
participle,  578,  V. 

Pt/rites^  decl.  of,  50. 

QU,  changed,  258. 

Qiiaevo^  constr.,  374,  3,  4). 
Qualis^  qualiscumque^  qualisqualis^ 
187,  6;  qualis^  interrog.,  188,  5. 
Quality,  characteristic,  genit,  of, 
396,  ly. ; abl.  of,  428. 

Quam^  w.  comparatives,  417,  1 ; w. 
superlatives,  170,  2.  Quampro^ 
w.  abl.,  417,  6.  Quam  ut^  w. 
subj.,  496,  2.  Quam  si^  w.  subj., 
503,  506.  Quam  quod^  w.  subj., 
520,  3. 

Quamquam^  w.  indie,  or  subj.,  516, 1. 
Quamvis,  quantumvis^  w.  subj.,  515 
fF. 

Quando^  w.  indic,  or  subj.,  520. 
Quantity,  20  ff. ; signs  of,  23,  1. 
General  rules  for,  610  ff.  Special, 
613-654;  final  syllables,  613  ff.  ; 
increments,  629  ff. ; deriv.  end- 
ings, 645  ff. ; stem  syllables,  649 
ff. 

Quantus.,  187,  6 ; indefinite,  188,  5. 
Quasi.,  w.  subj.,  503,  506. 

Qui.,  rel.,  interrog.,  indef.,  187  ff. ; 
for  quo.,  qua.,  187,  2 ; 188,  3.  Use 
of  as  rel.,  interrog.,  indef.,  453  ff. 
Qui,  w.  subj.  of  purpose  or  result, 
489,  500  ff.  Qui  dicitur^  vocatur., 
453,  7.  Quicumque.,  187,  4. 
Quia,  w.  indic,  or  subj.,  520. 
Quidam,  indef.,  191,  455. 

Quidem,  place  in  clause,  602,  III. 
Quilibet,  191 ; use  of,  453. 

Qitin,  w.  subj.,  489,  498. 

Quinam,  188,  4. 

Quinarius,  712, 

Quippe,  w.  relative,  519,  3, 

Quis,  interrog.,  188  ; indef.  189  ff. ; 

use  of,  454  ff. 

QvAs,  for  quibus,  187,  2. 

Quisnam,  188,  4. 

Quispiam,  191  ; use  of,  455. 
Quisquam,  191 ; use  of,  457. 
Quisque,  191 ; w.  abl.  absol.,  431, 
6 ; use  of,  458  ; w.  plur.  verb, 
461,  3. 


Quisquis,  187,  4. 

Quitum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Quivis,  191  ; use  of,  458. 

Quo,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4) ; w.  subj. 

of  purpose,  489,  497. 

Quoad,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4) ; w.  in- 
indic,  or  sub.,  521  ff. 

Quod,  expletive,  453,  6 ; w.  subj., 
520 ; clause  w.  quod  unconnected, 
554,  ly. ; quod  restrictive,  501, 3, 
Quojus,  quoi,  for  cujus,  cui,  187,  2. 
Quominus,  w.  subj.,  499. 

Quoniam,  w.  indic,  or  subj.,  520. 
Quoque,  place  in  the  clause,  602, 
III. 

Quot,  quotus,  187,  6 ; 188,  5. 

Quum,  w.  subj.,  515,  517  IF.  ; w.  in- 
dic., 518,  3. 

Rfor  s,  35  ; 258, 1.,  5.  Nouns  in, 
j 55 ; genit,  of,  77 ; gender, 
101,  103,  111,  114. 

R,  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Rastrum,  plur.  rastri,  rastra,  143. 
Ratum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Re,  red,  338,  3. 

-re^  for  ris,  236. 

Reason,  subj.  of,  517  ff.  See  Cause. 
Recordor,  w.  gen.,  406,  II.;  w, 
accus.,  407,  1 ; w.  abl.  with  de, 
407,  2. 

Recuso,  constr.,  499,  1,  2. 
Reduplicated  perfects,  261,  270, 
273  ; quantity  of,  652. 

Refert,  constr.,  406,  III. ; 408. 
Refetrus,  w.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (2) 
and  5. 

Reflexive  use  of  pronouns,  448  ff. 
Regarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accus., 
373. 

Regno,  w.  gen.,  409,  3. 

Relative,  187 ; as  adj.,  445,  8 ; use 
of,  453. 

Relative  clause,  w.  potential  subj., 
486,  1 ; w.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  5 ; 
of  purpose,  result,  500 ; of  result 
after  indefinite  or  general  antece- 
dents, after  unus,  solus,  dignus, 
indignus,  idoneus,  aptus,  and  com- 
par. w.  quam,  501,  I.-iy.  ; w. 
sub.  of  condition,  513  ; of  conces- 
sion, 515  ; of  cause,  reason,  517, 
519  ; w.  infin.,  531,  1. 

Reliquum  est,  constr.,  556,  I.  2. 


352 


mDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Remaining,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  556, 

III. 

Reminding,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  410. 
Reminiscor^  w.  gen.,  406,  II. 
Repeated  action,  subj.  of,  486,  5. 
Reposco^  with  two  aces.,  374,  2. 
Resisting,  verbs  of,  w.  the  dat.,  385. 
Respublica^  decl.  of,  126. 

Restat  ut^  495,  2. 

Result,  subjunctive  of,  489  tf.  ; w. 
conjuncts.,  490  ff. ; of  pure  re- 
sult, 494  ; mixed,  495  ; peculiari- 
ties, 496.  With  relatives,  500. 
See  Relative  clause. 

Reticentia^  704, 1.  3. 

Rhetorical  questions,  530,  2. 
Rhythmic  accent,  659. 

Rideo.,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
Roqo^  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ; w.  subj., 
558,  VI. 

Roman  pronunciation,  15  tf. 

-rs,  genit,  of  nouns  in,  91. 

Rudis,  w.  gen.,  399,  (2);  w.  abl., 
399,  5. 

Rules  of  Syntax,  591. 

Rus,  constr.,  379,  3 ; 424,  2. 
Rutum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

q SOUND  of,  11  ff.,  17  ff. ; w.  c 
lO^  or  g forms  x,  33;  dropped, 
34;  changed  to  r,  35.  Nouns  in, 
61  ; genit,  of,  79  tf. ; gend.,  99  tf. 
Sacer,  compared,  167  ; w.  dat.  or 
gen.,  391;  399,  3,  3). 

Saepe,  compared,  305,  4. 

Sapio,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Sapphic  verse,  664 ; 690,  I. ; 691, 

IV.  ; greater  sapphic,  690,  II. 
Satago,  satagito,  w.  gen.,  409,  5. 
Satis,  w.  gen.,  396,  III.  4). 
Satisfacio,  v/.  dat.,  385,  2. 

Saturn,  quantity  of,* 651,  3. 
Scanning,  668. 

Scazon,  683,  4. 

Scidi,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 
Secundum,  w.  accus.,  433. 

Sed,  se,  338,  3. 

Semi-deponents,  271,  3 ; 283  ; use 
of,  465,  3. 

Senex,  compared,  168,  3. 

Sentences,  syntax  of,  343-361 ; clas- 
sification of,  345  tf. ; simple,  347 
tf  ; complex,  357  ff. ; compound. 


360.  See  also  Declarative,  Ex- 
clamatory, Imperative,  Interroga- 
tive. 

Separation,  abl.  of,  425. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  480  tf.  Rule, 

480.  Application,  481 ; after  hist, 
pres.,  4^,  IV.  ; after  imp.  subj., 

481,  V. ; after  infin.  or  part.,  481, 
VI.  Exceptions,  482  ; after  perf 
def.,  482,  1 ; hist,  tense,  482,  2 ; 
in  orat.  obliqua,  482,  3. 

Sequitur,  w.  subj.  or  infin.,  495,  2 ; 
549,  1. 

Serving,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Servus,  decl.  of,  51. 

Sese,  184,  7. 

Sestertius,  sestertia,  sestertium,  712 

ff. 

Sexcenti,  indefinite,  174,  4. 

Showing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accs., 
373. 

-si,  sin,  in  Greek  datives,  68,  5. 

Si  minus,  584,  3. 

Si  non,  and  nisi,  508,  3. 

Silver  age,  706. 

-sim,  in  perfect  subj.,  239,  4. 
Similis,  and  its  compds.,  constr., 
391,  2,  4). 

Simple, — sentence,  347  ff. ; elements, 
350 ; subject,  351 ; predicate, 
353 ; words,  313,  1. 

Simul,  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Sin,  w.  subjunctive,  503,  507  tf. 

Sin  aliter,  684,  3. 

Sine,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Singular,  44  ; wanting,  131. 

Sino,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 

Sitio,  w.  accus.,  371,  3. 

Situm,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

-so,  in  tut.  perfect,  239,  4 ; in  fre- 
quen.,  332. 

Solus,  decl.  of,  151  ; solus  qui,  w. 

subj.,  501,  II. 

Source,  abl.  of,  426. 

Space,  acc.  of,  378. 

Sparing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
Specification,  acc.  of,  380 ; genit. 

of,  396,  V. ; abl.  of,  429. 
Spirants,  3. 

Stanza,  666  ; stanzas  of  Horace, 
699  tf. 

Stdtum,  quantity  of,  651,  3. 

Statuo,  constr.,  658,  II. 

Stem,  46  ; in  the  five  decls.,  47  ff., 


INDEX  OE  SUBJECTS. 


353 


123.  -Stems  in  s,  61  ; in  i,  62  ff. 
Verb-stem,  201 ; Pres,  stem,  249 
if.:  Perf.  stem,  252  if.;  supine 
stem,  256  if. 

Stem-syllables,  quantity  in  primi- 
tives, 649  if. ; in  derivats.,  653  ; 
in  compds.,  654. 

Steti^  stiti,  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

SlOy  w.  abl.,  414,  2,  1). 

Striving,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  558, 
III. 

StudiosuSy  w.  gen.,  399. 

8uby  in  compds.,  338,  2 ; compds.  w. 
dat.,  386.  Sub  w.  acc.  or  abl, 
435. 

Subject, — Simple  subject,  351 ; com- 
plex, 352;  compound,  361.  Subj. 
nom.,  367  ; omitted,  367,  2.  Subj. 
acc.,  375,  545  ; omitted,  545,  2. 
Infin.  as  subj.,  549.  Clause  as 
subj.,  555  if. 

Subject  and  object  clauses,  554  ff. 
Indirect  questions,  infin.  clauses, 
subjunctive  clauses,  and  clauses 
with  quody  compared,  554.  Sub- 
ject clauses,  555  if . ; interrog., 
555 ; not  interrog.,  556.  Object 
clauses,  557  if. ; interrog.,  557  ; 
not.  interrog.,  558. 

Subjective  genitive,  396,  I. 

Subjunctive,  196 ; syntax  of,  483- 
533, — Potential  subj.,  485  ff. 
Subj.  of  desire,  487  ff.  Of  pur- 
pose or  result,  489-501  ; w.  con- 
juncts.,  489  ff.  ; w.  relatives,  500 
ff.  Of  condition,  502  ff.  Of 
concession,  515  ff.  Of  cause  and 
time,  517  ff.  In  indirect  ques- 
tions, 524  ff.  By  attraction,  527. 
In  indirect  discourse — oratio  ob- 
liqua, 528. 

Subordinate, — clauses,  345,  2 ; in 
oratio  obliqua,  531.  Sub.  con- 
juncts.,  311,  588  ; elements,  349. 

Substantives,  see  Nouns. 

Subter y in  compds.  w.  acc.,  371,  4. 
SubteVy  acc.  or  abl.,  435. 

Suiy  decl.  of,  184 ; use  of,  448  ff. 

8um,y  w.  dat.,  387 ; vv.  pred.  gen., 
403. 

SupeVy  in  compds.  w.  accus.,  371, 
4 ; in  compds.  with  dat.,  386. 
SupeVy  w.  acc.  or  abl.,  435. 

Superlative,  160 ; irreg.,  163  ; want- 


ing, 168  ff. ; formed  by  maximcy 
170  ; w.  gen.,  396,  2,  3),  (2). 
SupersedeOy  386,  2. 

SuperuSy  compared,  163,  3. 

Supine,  196,  II. ; wanting,  266  ff., 
280  ff;  284,  2.  Use  of,  567  ff. 
Supine-stem,  formation  of,  256  ff. 
Supine  system,  215. 

Supplico y w.  dat.,  385,  2. 

SuprUy  w.  accus.,  433. 

Suspensusy  w.  gen.,  399,  (2). 

Suusy  decl.  of,  185;  use  of.  4iS  ff. 
Syllables,  13,  18. 

Synaeresis,  669,  II. 

Synaloepha,  Synaphr.p  669,  I.  5. 
Synecdoche,  705,  lU. 

Synesis,  704,  III.  S. 

Synopsis  of  conjugation,  216-226. 
Synopsis  of  declension,  69-98. 
Syntax,  343-606,  — of  sentences, 
343-361  ; of  nouns,  362-437  ; of 
adjectives,  438-444  ; of  pronouns, 
445-459 ; of  verbs,  460-581 ; of 
particles,  582-590.  Rules  of  syn- 
tax, 591.  Arrangement  of  words 
and  clauses,  592-606. 

Systole,  669,  IV. 

T SOUND  of,  10  ff.,  17  ff. ; nouns 
5 in,  58,  78;  gender.  111.  7' 

dropped,  36,  258. 

7\  quantity  of  final  syllables  in,  621. 
Taedety  constr.,  410. 

TaliSy  186,  5. 

Talpay  gender  of,  48,  6. 

Tametsiy  w.  subj.,  515;  516,  III. 
Tanquamy  tanquam  si,  w.  subj., 
503,  506. 

TantuSy  186,  5;  tantum  abcsty  496, 

3. 

Teaching,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aecs., 
374. 

7'ed  for  tCy  184,  8. 

Tempero y constr.,  385,  3. 

Templumy  decl.  of,  51. 

Temporal  conjunctions,  311 ; 588, 

I. 

Tenses,  197;  prin.  and  hist.,  198; 
wanting,  198,  3.  Use  of,  in  indie., 
466  ff.  ; in  subj.,  476  fi‘.  ; se- 
quence of,  480  ff. ; in  imperat., 
534 ; in  infin.,  540  ; in  part.,  571. 
Use  of,  in  letters,  472,  1. 
Tense-signs,  242  ff. 


354 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Temis^  w.  gen.,  411 ; w.  abl.,  434; 

after  its  case,  434,  2. 

-ter,  adverbs  in,  335. 

Terrae^  locative,  424,  3. 

Testis  sum^  constr.,  551,  3. 

Tete,  184,  7. 

Tetrameter  verse,  663,  2. 

Tetrapody,  656,  2. 

Tetrastich,  666. 

Th,  4. 

Thesis,  660. 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385. 
-ticius,  -ticus,  -tivus,  adjs.  in,  325, 
_1;  328,  5. 

-tiin,  adverbs  in,  334,  2. 

Time,  accus.  of,  378 ; abl.  of,  378, 
2 ; 423  ; w.  the  prep,  in^  423,  2 ; 
w.  ahliinc^  427.  Time  denoted 
by  acc.  or  abl.  tv.  ante  or  post^ 
427  ; by  participle,  578,  I. 

Time,  Tvith  cause  or  purpose,  siibj. 
of,  521  jff. 

Timeo ^ constr.,  385,  3 ; 492,  4. 

-tio,  nouns  in,  321. 

Tis^  for  iui^  184,  8. 

-to,  for  toi\  in  imperative,  239,  5. 
-to,  in  frequen.,  332. 

-tor,  nouns  in,  321. 

Tot^  totus^  186,  5.  Totus^  decl.  of, 
151. 

Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  42; 
constr., — accus.,  379  ; with  icrhs 
or  oppidum^  379,  2 ; abl.  or  loca- 
tive, 421,  11. 

Trans^  in  compds.,  333,  2;  in 
compds.  w.  accus.  371,4;  w.  two 
accs.,  374,  6.  Trails^  w.  acc.,  433. 
Transitive  verbs,  193  ; 371,  3. 

Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
Trimeter,  663,  2. 

Tripody,  653,  2. 

Tristich,  666. 

Trochaic  verse,  679  IF. 

-truni,  nouns  in,  320. 

-turn,  nouns  in,  317. 

Tn^  decl.  of,  184. 

Tuli^  quantity  of,  651,  2. 

“tiira,  nouns  in,  321. 

-tus,  nouns  in,  318;  adjs.  in,  323. 
Taus^  decl.  of,  185. 

U SOUND  of,  6 IF.,  15  ; tv.  sound 
5 of  7,  5),  15,  4.  Nouns  in 
u,  116;  gender  of,  116,  118. 


Cf,  quantity  of, — final,  619;  in  in- 
crements, 637,  644. 

-u,  for  ui  in  dat.,  117. 

Uhi^  TV.  genit.,  396,  2,  4). 

-ubus,  in  dat.  and  abl.,  66,  117. 
i 11%  as  diphthong,  9. 

I -uiSj  for  ws,  in  genit.,  117. 

I -ula,  nouns  in,  320,  5. 

I -uientus,  adjs.  in,  323. 

-uleuSj  in  derivatives,  315,  5. 

UUus^  decl.  of,  151 ; use  of,  457. 
Ulterior^  ultimus^  166 ; force  of, 
442,  1. 

Ultra^  w.  accus.,  433. 

-uluSj  ula,  ulum,  in  nouns,  315; 

I 320,  5 ; in  adjs.,  327  if. 

-unij  for  armn^  49 ; for  ornm^  52 ; 

in  gen.  plur.  of  3d  dec.,  57. 
-nndus,  undi,  for  endm^  endi^  238. 
Unus^  decl.  of,  151,  175;  iinns  qni^ 
w.  subj.,  501,  II. 

Unusquisque^  191,  5. 

-ur,  gend.  of  nouns  in.  111,  114. 
-urioj  desideratives  in,  332,  III. 
uSj  for  e in  voc.  sing.,  52 ; nouns  in, 
61, 116;  gender,  111,  115  fF.,  118. 
Derivatives  in,  320,  6;  321;  us, 
final  quantity  of,  627. 

Usque,  TV.  accus.,  437,  1. 

Usus,  constr.,  419. 

-ut^ nouns  in,  58  ; gend..  111. 

Ut,  w.  subj.  of  purpose  or  result, 
489  ff  ; omitted,  493,  2 ; tv.  qui, 
519,  3. 

Ut  si,  w.  subj.,  503,  506. 

Ut  quisque — ita,  458,  2. 

Uter  utercunque,  151. 

U terlihet,  ut  er  que,  uter  vis,  151.  U 'er- 
que,  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3. 

Uiinam,  v/.  subj.  of  desire,  488,  1. 
Utor,  constr.,  419;  419,  4. 

Utpote,  w.  qui,  519,  3. 

Utrum,  346,  II.  2. 

-utas,  adjs.  in,  323. 

-uuSj  verbal  adjs.  in,. 328,  5. 

-uXj  genitive  of  nouns  in,  96. 

PLACE  supplied  by  w,  2 ; 258, 

V 9 II.  4. 

Vacuus,  TV.  gen.  or  abl.,  399,  (3) 
and  5. 

Value,  genit,  of,  396,  IV. 

Vaiinus,  gender  of,  53. 

Velut,  velut  si,  w.  subj.,  503,-506. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


355 


Verbal  inflections,  table  of,  213  ff. 

Verbs,  etymology  of — Classes, 
voices,  moods,  tenses,  etc.,  192- 
203.  Paradigms,  204-214.  Verbal 
inflections,  2 1 3 ff.  Synopsis,  216- 
230.  Periphrastic  conj.,  231  ff. 
Contractions  and  peculiarities, 
234-239.  Comparative  view  of 
conjs.,  240.  Analysis  of  verbal 
endings,  241  ff  ; tense  signs,  242 
ff  ; mood  signs,  244  ff  ; personal 
endings,  24Y.  Formation  of 
stems,  249  ff.  Euphonic  changes 
in  stems,  258.  Classification  of 
verbs,  259-288.  Irreg.  verbs, 
289-296.  Defect.,  29Y.  Impers., 
298-301.  Deriv.,  330  ff  Com- 
pound, 341.  Irregularities  of 
special  verbs,  721.  See  also  Tran- 
sitive^ Intrans.^  Finite^  Deponent^ 
Semi-depon.^  Impersonal^  Fre- 
quent.^ Incept. Desiderat..^  Dimin- 
utive. 

Verbs,  syntax  of,  460,  581, — Agree- 
ment, 460  ff.  Omitted,  367,  3 ; 
460,  3.  Voices,  464  ff  Tenses 
of  Indie.,  466  ff.  Use  of  Indie., 
474.  Tenses  of  subj.,  476  ff.  Use 
of  Subj.,  483-533.  Imperat.,  534 
ff.  Infin.,  539-553.  Subject  and 
object  clauses,  554  ff.  Gerund, 
559-566.  Supine,  567  ff.  Parti- 
ciples, 571-581. 

Verb-stem,  201,  249. 

Vereor.,  constr.,  492,  4. 

Verisimile  est.,  verum  est,  constr., 
556,  I.  2. 

Vero,  place  in  clause,  602,  III. 

Verses,  661 ; names  of,  663  ff. 

Versification,  655, — Feet,  656  ff. 
Verses,  661  ff.  Figures  of  proso- 
dy, 669.  Varieties  of  verse,  670  ff. 

Versus,  w.  accus.,  433. 


Vesco?*,  constr.,  419 ; 419,  4. 
Vestras,  185,  3. 

Vestri,  vestrum,  396,  III.  1 ; 446,  3. 
Veto,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 

Vetus,  compared,  167. 

Vicinus,  w.  dat.  or  gen.,  391,  1 ; 
399,  3. 

Vir,  decl.  of,  51,  4. 

Vii'gil,  versification  of,  696. 
Vocative,  52,  68,  3.  Syntax  of,  369. 
Voices,  195.  See  also  under  Ve?*hs, 
syntax  of. 

Volens,  idiomatic  use  of  dat.,  387,  3. 
Volo,  constr.,  551,  II.  1. 

-volus,  compds.  in,  compared,  164. 
Voii  damnari,  410,  5 (1). 

Vowels,  3, 1. ; sounds  of,  6 ff. , 15  ff. ; 
changes  in,  27  ff.  Variable  vow- 
els, 57,  2. 

W PLACE  supplied  by  u,  2. 

^ AVant,  constr.  of  verbs  and 
adjs.  of,  419. 

AA^arning,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  558. 
VI. 

AVeights,  Roman,  714. 

AVinds,  gender  of  names  of,  42. 
AVishing,  constr.  of  verbs  of,  551. 
AVords,  arrangement  of,  592. 

X SOUND  of,  11  ff. ; nouns  in,  59, 
5 92  ff. ; gender  of,  105,  108. 

YONLY  in  Greek  words,  2. 

j Nouns  in,  73;  gender.  111. 
Y,  quantity  of, — final,  617 ; in  in- 
crements, 638. 

-ySj  nouns  in,  68,  2 ; gender  of, 
107  ; quantity  of  ys  final,  628. 
-ySj  nouns  in,  97. 

ZONLY  in  Greek  words,  2. 

^ Zeugma,  704,  I.  2. 


TABLE 


Showing  the  corresponding  articles  in  the  two  editions. 


Old.  Nkw. 

1-12 1-12 

13 

14-16 :..19 

17 13,  18 

18,  19 14,  18 

15-17 

20-23 20-23 

24  23,  1 

25  ^ ^ 

25 

27  25,  4 

28  25,  5 

26-36 

29  37 

80 38 

31. 89 

32  40 

33  41 

34; 41,  1 

35  42 

36  43 

37  44 

38  45 

39  46 

40  47 

41  46,  1 

42  48 

42,  3 49 

43  50 

44  48,  5 

45  51 

45,  5 52 

46.. .. 54 

47  53 

48  55 

49  56 

50.. . 57-59 

50  63,  64 

51  60,  61 

62,  66 

52-54 57,  63,  67 

55-57 

58  69 

59  70 

60  71 

61  72 

62  73 

63  74 


Old.  Nev,'. 

64  ....75 

65  70 

66  77 

67  78 

68  79 

69  80 

70  81 

71  82 

72  83 

73  84 

74  8r^ 

75  86-8S,  \ 

76  89-91'' 

77  92 

78  93 

79  94 

80  .'95 

81  96 

82  ■ 97 

83  98 

84  67,  1 

85,  87 62  ' 

86 68,  3 

88  67 

89  65 

90  67,  58,  2,  66,  68,  5 

91-98 68  ■ 

99-104 99-104-  . 

105,:.:., 

105 106 

106,  107 107  \ 

108-116 108-116 

116,  4 117 

117  119 

118  118 

119  120 

120  121 

121-123 122,  123 

124-148 124-148 

148  149,  150 

149  151 

150  152 

151  153 

152  154 

153  155 

154-158 156-158 

159-174 159-174 

175 175,  176 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES, 


357 


